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Agroforestry has an indispensable role in food and livelihood security in addition to its capacity to combat the detrimental effects of climate change. However, agroforestry has not been properly promoted and exploited due to lack of precise extent, geographical distribution, and carbon sequestration (CS) assessment. The recent advent of geospatial technologies, as well as free availability of spatial data and software, can provide new insights into agroforestry resources assessment, decision-making, and policy development despite agroforestry’s small spatial extent, isolated nature, and higher structural and functional complexity of agroforestry. In this review, the existing application of geospatial technologies together with its constraints and limitations as well as the potential future application for agroforestry has been discussed. The review reveals that the application of optical remote sensing in agroforestry includes spatial extent mapping, production of tree species spectral signature, CS assessment, and suitability mapping. Simultaneously, the recent surge in the use of synthetic aperture radar in conjunction with algorithms based on vegetation photosynthesis and optical data enables a more accurate estimation of gross primary productivity at different scales. However, unmanned aerial vehicles equipped with sensors, such as multispectral, LiDAR, hyperspectral, and thermal, offer a considerably higher potential and accuracy than satellite-based datasets. In the future, the health monitoring of agroforestry systems can be a key concern that may be addressed by utilizing hyperspectral and thermal datasets to analyze plant biochemistry, chlorophyll fluorescence, and water stress. Additionally, current (GEDI, ECOSTRESS) and future space agency missions (BIOMASS, FLEX, NISAR, TRISHNA) have enormous potential to shed fresh light on agroforestry systems.

Multipurpose tree species are recognized as an important fodder source for livestock, but their potential remains untapped due to dearth of knowledge about their nutritive value. Therefore, 15 MPTs, i.e., Acacia catechu , Albizia chinensis , Bauhinia variegata , Celtis australis , Ficus roxburghii , Grewia optiva , Leucaena leucocephala , Melia composita , Morus serrata , Olea glandulifera , Ougienia oojeinensis , Pittosporum floribundum , Quercus glauca , Q . leucotrichophora and Salix tetrasperma were evaluated for nutritional characteristics, relative nutritive value index (RNVI), palatability index and farmers’ preference on a seasonal basis in north-western Himalayas mid-hills. Most of the nutritive and mineral content decreased as leaves matured with the exception of ether extract, calcium, copper, organic matter and carbohydrate content, while cell-wall constituents and anti-nutritional contents increased. Overall, M . serrata had the highest RNVI in spring and summer, while G . optiva during autumn and winter. Similarly, L . leucocephala had the highest palatability (97.86%), while M . composita (38.47%) had the lowest one. Additionally, G . optiva was the most favored MPT for livestock among farmers, while M . composita was the least ones. The outcome of the study will help policy makers, planners and farm managers in establishing large scale plantations of highly nutritious and palatable species, like G . optiva , L . leucocephala , B . variegata , and M . serrata for year-round supply of green leaves and as a supplement to low-quality feed.

Food is a basic human requirement which sustains the dynamics of the Earth's inhabitants by satisfying hunger, providing nutrition and health, and catering to culture, tradition, and lifestyle. However, the rising global population coupled with climate change including calamities, diseases, conflicts, as well as poor agricultural practices put a huge constraint on the quantity and quality of food. Modern agriculture propelled by the green revolution has somehow been able to meet the food requirements of the ever-increasing population and is heavily dependent on chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery, reducing the quality of food, and simultaneously posing a great risk of environmental quality degradation and genetic diversity reduction. The Integrated Organic Farming System (IOFS) is a novel approach that holds the potential in addressing the challenge of reconciling food production with environmental preservation. As this approach embraces zero or minimal chemical use, adopting the reprocessing and reuse of agricultural residues has led to a sustainable system that can be viewed as the closest approach to nature and a circular economy. However, certain constraints need to be addressed, such as ascertaining the effectiveness of organic fertilizers, the complexities associated with weed management, and the inadequacy of proficiency, financial resources, and technical expertise required to implement the IOFS. Therefore, this study emphasizes the comprehensive benefits that could be derived from IOFS, particularly agroforestry, including efficient food production, improved food quality, biodiversification of crops by the adoption of lesser-known crops to cater to cultural requirements and minimal capital input to achieve environmental sustainability and a carbon neutral economy.

Himalayan forest has been threatened by rapid anthropogenic activities, resulting in the loss of forest diversity and climate change. The present study was carried out on four aspects (northern, southern, western and eastern), at three different altitudinal ranges, namely, 1000–1300 m above sea level (m a.s.l.), 1300–1600 m a.s.l. and 1600–1900 m a.s.l., and at three diverse mountain ranges (Kalaghat, Barog and Nangali) of sub-temperate forest ecosystems of the mid Himalayan ranges, to elucidate their influence on vegetation, tree characteristics and ecosystem carbon density. The results revealed that Pinus roxburghii is the most dominant forest community of the mid Himalaya’s forest, irrespective of altitudinal gradient and slope. The south-facing slopes are occupied by the xerophytic tree species frequently found in the lower Shiwalik P. roxburghii forest, whereas the north-facing ones are dominated by mesophyllic species, such as Cedrus deodara and Quercus leucotrichophora, which commonly grows in the northwestern Himalayan temperate forest ecosystem. The maximum stem density (211.00 Nha−1) was found at 1000–1300 m a.s.l., and on the northern aspect (211.00 Nha−1). The maximum stem volume (236.50 m3 ha−1) was observed on the northern aspect at 1000–1300 m a.s.l., whereas the minimum (32.167 m3 ha−1) in the southern aspect at 1300–1600 m a.s.l. The maximum carbon density (149.90 Mg ha−1) was found on the northern aspect and declined with increasing elevation from 123.20 to 74.78 Mg ha−1. Overall, the study establishes that the southern and western aspects are very low in carbon density, whereas the northern aspect represents higher biodiversity as well as carbon and nutrient stocks. Therefore, aspect and altitude should be given due importance for efficient managing of biodiversity and mitigating climate change.

Sustainable forest management is the key to biodiversity conservation, flow of resources and climate change mitigation. We assessed the impact of various forest management regimes (FMRs): legal felling series [(reserve forest (RF), demarcated protected forest (DPF), un-demarcated protected forest (UPF), co-operative society forest (CSF) and un-classed forest (UF)] on biodiversity conservations and carbon storage in Acacia catechu Willd. Dominated northern tropical dry deciduous forest ecosystems in Nurpur Forest Division of north-western Himalaya, India. The study revealed significant variations in floristic composition, biodiversity indices, population structure and C storage potential among different forest management regimes. The RF and DPF were found to be rich in species diversity and richness whereas the Simpson dominance index for trees and shrubs was maximum in UF and UPF, respectively. The diversity of understory herbs were higher in CSF and UF. The maximum density of seedlings, saplings and poles were recorded in RF followed by DPF and UPF, whereas the minimum density was found in CSF. The tree C density (69.15 Mg C ha −1 ) was maximum in UF closely followed by RF; whereas the minimum was recorded in CSF (33.27 Mg C ha −1 ). The soil C density was maximum in RF (115.49 Mg C ha −1 ) and minimum in CSF (90.28 Mg C ha −1 ). Similarly, the maximum total ecosystem C density was recorded in RF (183.52 Mg C ha −1 ) followed by DPF (166.61 Mg C ha −1 ) and minimum in CSF (126.05 Mg C ha −1 ). Overall, UF management regimes were shown to have a greater capacity for C storage in vegetation, whereas strict FMRs, such as RF and DPF, were found to be more diverse and have a higher soil and ecosystem carbon density. The study established that in the midst of climate and biodiversity emergencies, it is urgent to maintain, protect and strengthen the network of RF and DPF FMRs for biodiversity conservation, climate change adaptation and mitigation.

Identification of the species for dendrochronological studies is of great relevance to understand various aspects of climate change. However, in the northwestern Himalayan region, dendroclimatological investigations are confined to conifer species, with broadleaved species being disregarded. Thus, the present study was conducted to assess the growth response of seven multipurpose tree species (MPTs), namely Bauhinia variegata, Celtis australis, Grewia optiva, Paulownia fortunei, Toona ciliata, Ulmus villosa and Melia composita to local climate variables, viz. temperature as well as rainfall (seasonal, monthly, average) and CO2 level by evaluating the climatic signal in tree ring chronologies at Solan district, India (altitude 1 250 m) in the mid-hills of the northwestern Himalayas. The results indicated that only the maximum, rainy season temperature and CO2 level varied significantly (P < 0.05) between 1991 and 2017. Only G. optiva exhibited a significant (P < 0.05) tendency toward increased growth. C. australis has a remarkable negative correlation with temperature variables, viz. average, maximum, spring season, March temperature, whereas T. ciliata exhibits a positive correlation with temperature variables, such as rainy season, average and April temperature. Similarly, winter, total and December rainfall have a profound effect on P. fortunei, while March rainfall adversely affected the growth of B. variegata. On the other hand, G. optiva demonstrated sensitivity to both temperature (February and May) and rainfall variables (winter, February and May). U. villosa recorded a positive correlation with rainfall (autumn and October rainfall) but a negative correlation with temperature variables (maximum and April temperature). Elevated CO2 levels affected only two species (G. optiva, M. composita) out of the seven selected species. Our findings will contribute to a better understanding of the climate growth relationships of investigated tree species, as a result, to more accurate projections of the effects of climate change on these MPTs and directing future studies.

This study evaluates six bamboo species, i.e., Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Bambusa nutans, Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa bambos, Bambusa balcooa, and Dendrocalamus strictus, regarding their growth behavior, nutrient uptake, and effect on the soil properties of the Terai region. Various aboveground growth parameters exhibited significant variations with the maximum clump girth (8.60 m) and internodal length (35.37 cm) of B. nutans, which was also reported by the culm diameter (5.70 cm) of D. hamiltonii and the number of culms per clump (65) of D. strictus. The total aboveground biomass ranged from 51.14 Mg.ha-1 in D. asper to 362.56 Mg.ha-1 in D. hamiltonii. The most significant variation in soil properties was observed in the 0-40 cm soil layer. Under D. hamiltonii, the lowest soil bulk density (1.07 g.cm3; 1.21 g.cm3) and the maximum soil porosity (59.00%; 56.40%), soil organic carbon (1.54%; 0.72%), and available soil nitrogen (228.29 kg.ha-1; 173.73 kg.ha-1) were found the 0-40 and 40-80 cm soil layers. Furthermore, significant enhancements in soil microbial population were recorded. Thus, bamboo plantations have great potential to enhance the biomass generation and fertility quotient of fallow lands.

Agroforestry is gaining attention as a sustainable food system that also contributes to maintaining soil health and environmental stability. Hence, the current experiment was established in a split-plot design; focused on cultivating Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott in Morus alba L.-based agroforestry systems and open field condition (main plots) with ten different mulch applications (sub plots) namely, mulch of Toona ciliata  + farmyard manure (FYM) + Recommended Doses Fertilizers (@ N:P:K:: 110:60:50 kg ha −1 ) (RDF); Pinus roxburghii  + FYM + RDF; Celtis australis  + FYM + RDF; Ulmus villosa  + FYM + RDF; Artemisia vulgaris  + FYM + RDF; Pistacia integrimma  + FYM + RDF; Phyllostachys aurea  + FYM + RDF; Melia composita  + FYM + RDF; and FYM + RDF and control conditions, each replicated thrice. The results demonstrated that the canopy of M. alba had a minimal influence on the total yield of Colocasia; however, increases in some yield traits, such as corms per plant and corm fresh weight were observed despite decreasing the amount of light transmitted through the tree canopy by 29.51%. Moreover, the highest growth and yield traits, viz ., number of sprouted rhizomes (79.36%), tillers per plant (5.95), corms per plant (11.28), and yield (19.18 t ha −1 ) were observed under T. ciliata  + FYM + RDF mulch treatment. Simultaneously, the soil analysis indicated that under M. alba canopy had a higher available potassium (246.89 kg ha −1 ), phosphorus (50.812 kg ha −1 ), nitrogen (358.78 kg ha −1 ) and organic carbon (1.35%) compared to open cropping. Among different mulch treatments, the application of P. aurea  + FYM + RDF mulch considerably improved soil health. Overall, the study concluded that C. esculenta can be grown in an agroforestry system without any significant reduction in yield, and the use of organic mulches such as P. aurea , T. ciliata , and C. australis can further enhance the growth and yield of Colocasia, making it a viable option for increasing the regenerative capacity of the soil.

Innovative practices like combining agroforestry with organic mulch can store carbon and enhance crop yields by regulating soil temperature, improving soil health and moisture. A study was conducted during 2022–23 in the mid-hills of the North-western Himalayas to evaluate the productivity of turmeric plants grown under different densities of Melia composita Willd. The research employed a split-plot design, utilizing different tree spacings (main plot)—8m × 5m (S1) and 8m × 4m (S2) of Melia composita trees and sole cropping, along with one control (T1) and nine distinct mulch treatments (sub-plots): T2 (Farm yard manure (FYM)), T3 (Toona ciliata + FYM + Recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF)), T4 (Artemis vulgaris + FYM + RDF), T5 (Ulmus villosa + FYM + RDF), T6 (Celtis australis + FYM + RDF), T7 (Pinus roxburghii + FYM + RDF), T8 (Pistacia integrimma + FYM + RDF), T9 (Phyllostachys aurea + FYM + RDF), T10 (Melia composita + FYM + RDF). The results showed that higher biomass (301.54 Mg ha−1) and carbon density (143.24 Mg ha−1) were achieved with S2 tree spacing than S1. However, for better turmeric growth and yield, S1 tree spacing performed better. Among the different mulch treatments, T6 produced the highest curcumin percentage, primary finger count, and mother rhizome weight. On the other hand, T10 resulted in the highest primary finger weight and total yield. Using T3 mulch enhanced the level of available N, P, K in soil and mulch used in T9 improved the soil microbial characteristics. Turmeric intercropped with M. composita in 8m × 5m (S1) and 8m × 4m (S2) spacing resulted in net returns of$7948.44 ha−1 and $ 7456.64 ha−1 year−1, respectively, which were 23.74% and 16.07% increase compared to sole cropping (S3). This research provides valuable insights into optimizing tree spacing and mulch materials in an agroforestry system based on M. composita, which enhances turmeric crop productivity, soil health and economic viability.

A well-designed tree-based culture provides multiple benefits, aiding in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs), especially SDG1 (no poverty), SDG2 (zero hunger), SDG13 (climate action), and SDG15 (life on land). A split-plot field experiment near Solan, Himachal Pradesh, tested the following Grewia optiva tree spacings as main plots: S1 10 m × 1 m, S2 10 m × 2 m, S3 10 m × 3 m, and sole cropping (S0—Open) of pea (Pisum sativum L.). Pea cultivation included the following six fertilizer treatments as subplots: control (no application), farmyard manure (FYM), vermicompost (VC), Jeevamrut, FYM + VC, and the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDFs), each replicated three times. The results indicated that the leaves, branches, total biomass, carbon density, and carbon sequestration rate of G. optiva alleys at 10 m × 1 m were greater than those at the other spacings. However, peas intercropped at 10 m × 3 m produced the highest yield (5.72 t ha−1). Compared with monocropping, G. optiva-based agroforestry significantly improved soil properties. Among fertilizers, FYM had the highest yield (6.04 t ha−1) and improved soil health. The most lucrative practice was the use of peas under a 10 m × 1 m spacing with FYM, with economic gains of 2046.1 USD ha−1. This study suggests integrating pea intercropping with G. optiva at broader spacing (10 m × 3 m) and using FYM for optimal carbon sequestration, soil health, and economic returns, and this approach is recommended for the region’s agroecosystems.