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This study analyzes farmers' decisions to use land management adaptation practices in the face of climate change. It also looks at the socio-economic elements that influence adaptation practices. To collect primary data, a multistage and simple random sampling procedure was used to choose a sample of 338 farmers. The data was analyzed using a multivariate probit model. The results reveal that a farmer's likelihood of adopting a specific land management adaptation measure is linked to and defined by a set of complementary adaptation measures. Grade bund terracing (97.1%), contour plowing (96.9%), adequate waterway (88.4%), compost preparation (84.3%), hedge planting (73.4%), and mulching (66.6%) were the most commonly chosen land management adaptation measures, followed by afforestation (61.2%), gulley rehabilitation (57.8%), woodlot implementation (55.5%), and area closure (55.4%). This shows that grade bund terracing and contour plowing are the most likely chosen land management adaptation practices while area closure is the less likely choice of practice. Land management adaptation strategies by farmers had a combined chance of success of 96 %, compared to a combined probability of failure. The implication is that farmers will utilize a combination of land management strategies to address climate change variables. The results also demonstrate that the sex, family size, farm experience, frequency of extension visits, and farmers' level of education have a substantial impact on the common underlying socioeconomic component for choosing land management adaption techniques. As a result, developing a package of land management adaptation methods is critical for possible climate change treatments and strategies.

The objective of the study was to understand the socio-economic and cultural conditions of crop cultivation practices of farmers; the willingness of farmers towards tractor use and the factors that affect the start of tractor hiring services (THS). A total of 148 households were considered for the survey. Both purposive and stratified sampling techniques were employed disaggregated by sex, wealth status and soil types owned. Data collection techniques included structured interview and focused group discussion. Both descriptive and econometrics techniques were employed to analyze the data. The findings showed that labor shortage (69.7%), high rate of weed infestation (26.5%) and shortages of herbicides (27%) were the main challenges of weeding in the study area. Likewise, shortage of oxen (52%) and labor (43.3%) were found to be challenges related to ploughing practice. About 80% of the sampled farmers were willing to use THS if available in the study area. The econometric model result showed that being a model farmer, sex of a household, land holding, adult female labor endowment, oxen endowment and experience in use of herbicides were positively and significantly affecting farmers' willingness to use THS. However, age of the head of a household negatively affected the willingness to use THS. From the results of the study it is possible to conclude that since oxen ownership and oxen ploughing practice are deeply rooted in Ethiopian tradition, awareness creation and close follow up are required at all levels for adoption of mechanization.

Watershed development is part of a poverty reduction and environmental conservation initiative in Ethiopia. The study evaluates the impact of project-supported and community-based watershed development (WSD) interventions on households' food security status and identifies the factors that affect WSD participants. A propensity score matching (PSM), a household food balance model (HFBM), a geographic information system (GIS), and a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) were employed to analyze data. The PSM model result revealed that participation in a project-supported WSD had a more significant effect on household food security than the community-based WSD. The average treatment effect for the treated (ATT) was 3845.02 Kcal, while the average treatment effect for the control group (ATE) was 3037.85 Kcal, depicting a significant difference between them. Changes in land use and land cover in the study watersheds imply that agricultural and degraded land patterns decreased, whereas grazing land, bushland, wetland, and plantation land patterns have increased in project-supported watersheds over the study period. On one hand, the main socio-economic drivers that positively impacted the food security status of the WSD participation were land size, credit access, livestock ownership, and training. On the other hand, market distance and distance from farmers' training centers have a significant and negative impact on the status of the households' food security. The study concludes that project-initiated WSD intervention has a crucial impact on achieving household food security. Priority should be also given to increasing the productivity of land, increasing access to credit services, improving livestock ownership, and providing veterinary services.

Ethiopia is vulnerable to climate change and variability. This research investigates the factors that affect farm management adaptation strategies to climate change in west of Lake Tana and Beles river watersheds of Northwest Ethiopia. A survey was conducted collecting data from 338 households through a semi-structured interview schedule. To analyze the data, the multivariate probit model was used. The results indicated that market distance, frequency of extension services and oxen ownership have highly influenced the choice of crop management adaptation strategies to climate change. The likelihood of adopting short- mature crops, high yielding crop variety, and crop compost preparation was relatively higher (95%) as compared to the probability of adopting other strategies. The joint probabilities of success of the adaptation of the crop management adaptation strategies were 15%. Hence, households are more likely to jointly adopt the crop management climate change strategies. Similarly, age of household head, market distance, and oxen ownership were important characteristics affecting the farmers’ choice of animal management as climate change adaptation strategy. The likelihood of adopting hay preparation (89.4%), cut and carry system (77.4%), herd size determination (69.6%) and rotational grazing (67%) were also relatively higher as compared to other strategies. The joint probabilities of adaptation of animal management as climate change adaptation strategy was more likely to be applicable if adoption of the technologies (16.8%) were made jointly compared to their failure to jointly adopt them. Therefore, promoting complementary farm management adaptation practices and considering the socioeconomic factors are crucial to mitigate climate change vulnerability in the study area.

Non-farm adaptation strategies offer an alternative approach to addressing the impacts of climate change, particularly in landscapes characterized by lakes, rivers, watersheds, and restoring activities. Despite their potential, non-farm approaches have received limited attention compared to farm-level strategies in climate change adaptation discussions. This study examines smallholder farmers’ non-farm adaptation strategies to climate change in the Lake Tana and Beles River watersheds. It analyses the socioeconomic factors influencing farmers' decisions to engage in these practices based on a survey of 338 randomly selected farmers. Data were analyzed using non-parametric tests (Mann–Whitney U test) and a multivariate probit model. The findings reveal that the most common methods used by farmers to adopt climate change strategies include handcraft activities (9.8%), wage employment (18.9%), mini-hotel services (12.72%), petty trade (16.27%), saving (44.08%), physical asset building (47.34%), and use of fuel-saving technologies (76.63%). The marginal success probability results showed that the likelihood of implementing fuel-saving technologies (77.7%), physical asset-building practices (49.2%), and small trade activities (16.8%) was higher than the probability of implementing other non-farm adaptation strategies. The results revealed that farmers' decisions to employ non-farm adaptation strategies are negatively impacted by gender, education level, family size, and extension services, while the impact of market distance is positive. However, livestock ownership had a dual effect on non-farm adaptation practices at a different level of significance. The study recommends actions that require training for female-headed households empowerment, capacity building on handcraft skills development for improved production, and improvement of the extension methodology to minimize vulnerability to climate change risks. Furthermore, facilitating infrastructure such as marketing services and careful choice and application of non-farm adaptation technologies have been essential to minimize climate shocks in the region.