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Salinity is a major abiotic factor affecting plant growth and secondary metabolism. However, no information is available about its effects on Schizonepeta tenuifolia Briq., a traditional Chinese herb. Here, we investigated the changes of plant growth, antioxidant capacity, glandular trichome density, and volatile exudates of S. tenuifolia exposed to salt stress (0, 25, 50, 75, 100 mM NaCl). Results showed that its dry biomass was reduced by salt treatments except 25 mM NaCl. Contents of antioxidants, including phenolics and flavonoids, increased at low (25 mM) or moderate (50 mM) levels, but declined at severe (75 and 100 mM) levels. On leaf surfaces, big peltate and small capitate glandular trichomes (GTs) were found. Salt treatments, especially at moderate and severe concentrations, enhanced the density of total GTs on both leaf sides. The most abundant compound in GT volatile exudates was pulegone. Under salinity, relative contents of this component and other monoterpenes decreased significantly; biosynthesis and accumulation of esters were enhanced, particularly sulfurous acid,2-ethylhexyl hexyl ester, which became the second major compound as salinity increased. In conclusion, salt stress significantly influenced the growth and secondary metabolism of S. tenuifolia, enabling us to study the changes of its pharmacological activities.

The distinctive characteristics of nanoparticles and their potential applications have been given considerable attention by scientists across different fields, particularly agriculture. However, there has been limited effort to assess the impact of copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) in modulating physiological and biochemical processes in response to salt-induced stress. This study aimed to synthesize CuNPs biologically using Solenostemma argel extract and determine their effects on morphophysiological parameters and antioxidant defense system of barley ( Hordeum vulgare ) under salt stress. The biosynthesized CuNPs were characterized by (UV–vis spectroscopy with Surface Plasmon Resonance at 320 nm, the crystalline nature of the formed NPs was verified via XRD, the FTIR recorded the presence of the functional groups, while TEM was confirmed the shape (spherical) and the sizes (9 to 18 nm) of biosynthesized CuNPs. Seeds of barley plants were grown in plastic pots and exposed to different levels of salt (0, 100 and 200 mM NaCl). Our findings revealed that the supplementation of CuNPs (0, 25 and 50 mg/L) to salinized barley significantly mitigate the negative impacts of salt stress and enhanced the plant growth-related parameters. High salinity level enhanced the oxidative damage by raising the concentrations of osmolytes (soluble protein, soluble sugar, and proline), malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ). In addition, increasing the activities of enzymatic antioxidants, total phenol, and flavonoids. Interestingly, exposing CuNPs on salt-stressed plants enhanced the plant-growth characteristics, photosynthetic pigments, and gas exchange parameters. Furthermore, CuNPs counteracted oxidative damage by lowering the accumulation of osmolytes, H 2 O 2 , MDA, total phenol, and flavonoids, while simultaneously enhancing the activities of antioxidant enzymes. In conclusion, the application of biosynthesized CuNPs presents a promising approach and sustainable strategy to enhance plant resistance to salinity stress, surpassing conventional methods in terms of environmental balance.

Background Glechoma longituba , recognized as a medicinal plant, provides valuable pharmaceutical raw materials for treating various diseases. Saline-alkali stress may effectively enhance the medicinal quality of G. longituba by promoting the synthesis of secondary metabolites. To investigate the changes in the primary medicinal components of G. longituba under saline-alkali stress and improve the quality of medicinal materials, Na 2 CO 3 was applied to induce short-term stress under different conditions and the biomass, physiologically active substances and primary medicinal components of G. longituba were measured in this study. Results Under alkaline salt stress, the activities of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) were elevated in G. longituba , accompanied by increased accumulation of proline (Pro) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Furthermore, analysis of the medicinal constituents revealed that G. longituba produced the highest levels of soluble sugars, flavonoids, ursolic acid, and oleanolic acid under 0.6% Na 2 CO 3 stress for 48 h, 0.2% Na 2 CO 3 stress for 72 h, 0.4% Na 2 CO 3 stress for 12 h, and 0.4% Na 2 CO 3 stress for 8 h, respectively. Conclusions Short-term Na 2 CO 3 stress enhances the synthesis of medicinal components in G. longituba . By manipulating stress conditions, the production of various medicinal substances could be optimized. This approach may serve as a basis for the targeted cultivation of G. longituba , offering potential applications in the treatment of diverse diseases.

Dracocephalum kotschyi is a medicinal plant rich in antioxidant phytochemicals. Identifying the suitable cultivation region and evaluating the impact of environmental factors can help in choosing the best conditions for the commercial production of these herbs. The present study investigated the effect of different cultivation areas, Lasak (LSK), Saravarsu (SVS), and Sorkh Geriveh (SGV) on the glandular trichome density and phytochemicals of D. kotschyi . According to the findings, the environmental factors significantly affected the plant phytochemicals. The highest glandular trichome density (16 number mm −2 ), essential oil content and yield (0.716% and 0.45 g m −2 ), geraniol (24.3%), citral (16.2%), cis -carveol (13.2%), α-pinene (12%), methyl generate (7.2%), geranyl acetate (7.1%), PAL activity (10.104 nmol min −1 g −1 FW), total phenol (2.036 mg GAE g −1 DW), coumaric acid (0.112 mg g −1 DW), rutin (29.688 mg g −1 DW), rosmarinic acid (9.668 mg g −1 DW) and apigenin (8.089 mg g −1 DW) were recorded in the SGV region so that was up to 100-fold higher than in the LSK region. Finally, the environmental conditions of the SGV region (higher altitude, lower temperature, rainfall, and humidity, as well as some soil characteristics) strongly increased the production of phytochemicals, so this region is suggested for the commercial production of this plant and its secondary metabolites for various industries.

This study aims to explore the low phosphorus (P) tolerance of saplings from different Gleditsia sinensis Lam. families. It also seeks to screen for Gleditsia sinensis families with strong low P tolerance and identify key indicators for evaluating their tolerance. This research provides a foundation for the breeding of superior families of Gleditsia sinensis and the study of mechanisms underlying low P tolerance. Using saplings from 30 Gleditsia sinensis families as the research subjects, a sand culture pot experiment was conducted. This study set up low P treatment (0.01 mmol L −1 ) and normal P treatment (1 mmol L −1 ). Twenty-five indicators including growth morphology, biomass, root morphology, and P content were measured. The low P tolerance coefficient was used as the basic data for assessing the low P tolerance of Gleditsia sinensis . The fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method was employed to comprehensively assess the low P tolerance types of Gleditsia sinensis a stepwise regression model was established to identify the key evaluation indicators for low P tolerance. The results indicate that low P stress reduced plant height, stem diameter, and biomass in most Gleditsia sinensis families, but increased the root morphological indicators, root-shoot ratio and PUE of various organs. Principal component analysis transformed the 25 indicators into 6 independent comprehensive indicators, with a cumulative contribution rate of 86.743%. The fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method calculated a comprehensive evaluation value (D value), enabling the screening of Gleditsia sinensis families into low P tolerant and low P sensitive types. Cluster analysis grouped the 30 Gleditsia sinensis families into 4 types. Among them, F13, F10, F9, F18, F15, and F28 were classified as low P tolerant types; F6, F23, F3, F17, F20, F2, F12, F11, F16, F8, F5, F27, F1, and F26 were categorized as intermediate types; F30, F7, F22, F4, F19, F29, F24, F14 and F25 were considered low P sensitive types, and F21 was classified as extremely low P sensitive types. The stepwise regression analysis identified the indicators stem diameter, total root volume, shoot dry weight, total root projection area, and leaf P content as the key factors for discriminating the low P tolerance of Gleditsia sinensis . The regression model is as follows: D=-0.005 + 0.323 stem diameter *+0.154 * total root volume + 0.196* shoot dry weight + 0.139* total root projection area − 0.112* leaf P content. In summary, low P stress inhibited the growth of Gleditsia sinensis saplings, but it increased the root morphological indicators, root-shoot ratio and PUE of various organs to cope with low P environments. The screening identified F13, F10, F9, F18, F15, and F28 as low P tolerant Gleditsia sinensis families. The evaluation indicators for low P tolerance in Gleditsia sinensis were identified as stem diameter, total root volume, shoot dry weight, total root projection area and leaf P content.

Drought is one of the main limitations impacting the growth, yield, and phytochemical properties of medicinal plants. The present study examined how foliar application of nano-silicon (n-Si) can impact drought tolerance, physiological responses, and levels of bioactive compounds (bio-actives) in the medicinal herb, Lallemantia iberica . Plants were grown in a greenhouse under either well-watered (100% field capacity) or moderate drought stress (50% field capacity) conditions. Drought-stressed plants received a spraying of n-Si (at a concentration of 100 mg L − 1 ) or bulk silicon at a similar concentration, every three days. Compared to control (well-watered) plants, biomass accumulation and photosynthetic efficiency were significantly decreased, along with seed yield and essential oil yields in drought-stressed plants. Application of nano-silicon in drought conditions improved plant water condition, chlorophyll levels, antioxidant enzyme activity, and yield-related traits compared with untreated drought-stressed plants. On the contrary, the responses produced by bulk silicon were much weaker and inconsistent. The improvement in the beneficial effects of nano-silicon resulted from better regulation of water-use efficiency, oxidative stress, and the number of secondary metabolites produced, demonstrating that there were physiological changes instead of isolated responses by individual traits. Results indicate that the beneficial effects of n-Si can lessen the impact of drought stress through the enhancement of physiological stability and the production of phytochemicals from L. iberica in a controlled environment.

Clinopodium nepeta (L.) Kuntze is a medicinal and aromatic species of the Lamiaceae family, rich in phenolic compounds; however, studies regarding its in vitro culture, growth regulation properties and secondary metabolism remain limited. The present study investigated the effects of three adenine-type cytokinins: 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), meta-topolin (m-TOP), and BAP riboside (r-BAP), applied at concentrations of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 or 4.0 mg L−1, on shoot proliferation, biomass accumulation, phenolic profile, and antioxidant activity in C. nepeta shoot cultures. The phenolic constituents of hydromethanolic shoot extracts were subjected to qualitative profiling using UHPLC–DAD–ESI–MS, while antioxidant potential was evaluated using spectrophotometric assays (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP). All tested cytokinins stimulated shoot proliferation and biomass growth compared with the control; of these, m-TOP demonstrated the most pronounced positive effect, characterized by high multiplication rate and improved shoot morphology. UHPLC–DAD–ESI–MS analysis revealed the presence of numerous caffeic acid derivatives including rosmarinic acid, chlorogenic acids, salvianolic acid derivatives, and flavonoid glycosides; their accumulation was strongly influenced by cytokinin type and concentration. Notably, rosmarinic acid, the dominant phenolic constituent in the treated shoots, reached 23.28 mg g−1 DW under m-TOP treatment, i.e., an approximate 20-fold increase compared with the control. The extracts from shoots cultured on cytokinin-supplemented media exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity, which correlated with increased phenolic content. These relationships were confirmed by principal component analysis (PCA). Hence, C. nepeta shoot cultures represent an efficient in vitro system for biomass production and phenolic compound biosynthesis, and the selection of cytokinin type is a critical factor modulating both morphogenetic and metabolic responses.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are increasingly recognized as active elicitors capable of modulating plant growth and metabolism. This study evaluated the effects of AgNPs (1.0–50.0 mg/L) on in vitro shoot cultures of Clinopodium nepeta subsp. spruneri (Boiss.) Bartolucci & F. Conti (Lamiaceae). AgNP exposure significantly reduced shoot length, leaf and node numbers, and completely suppressed root formation, while biomass accumulation increased in a concentration-dependent manner. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) identified rosmarinic acid (RA) as the major phenolic, with levels rising 2.5- to 4.5-fold in treated shoots compared with control and wild plants. The maximum RA content, total phenolic concentration, antioxidant activity (DPPH and FRAP), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition were observed at 20.0 mg/L AgNP. In contrast, the highest flavonoid content was recorded in the wild plant. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed that isoeugenol dominated in AgNP-treated cultures, while menthalactone was the principal constituent in both control and wild samples. These findings demonstrate that AgNPs substantially alter the metabolic profile of C. nepeta subsp. spruneri , highlighting their potential as elicitors for enhancing phenolic accumulation, antioxidant activity, and enzyme inhibition under in vitro conditions.

Background Zataria multiflora Boiss. is a medicinal and aromatic plant from the Lamiaceae family. It is extensively used in Iranian traditional medicine, mostly as a replacement for Thyme species. This study was focused on the analysis of chemical composition and the distribution and types of trichomes of Z. multiflora grown under different conditions. Equilibrium headspace analysis in combination with GC-FID-MS was used to identify volatile compounds released by aerial parts of Z. multiflora in development stages of 50 and 100% flowering under normal and drought-stress conditions. Results The main constituents were p-cymene (20.06–27.40%), γ-terpinene (12.44–16.93%), and α-pinene (6.91–16.58%) and thymol (8.52–9.99%). The highest content of p-cymene (27.40%) and thymol (9.99%) was observed in the 50% flowering stage at the 90% field capacity, while the maximum γ-terpinene (16.93%) content was recorded in the 100% flowering stage under normal conditions. Using the SEM method, it was found that peltate glandular and non-glandular trichomes are distributed on the surface of the leaf, stem, and outer side of the calyx. However, capitate trichomes only are detected on the stem and calyx in the 100% flowering and beginning of blooming stages, respectively. The type and structure of trichomes do not vary in different development stages, but they differ in density. The highest number of leaf peltate glandular trichomes was observed in the vegetative and beginning of blooming stages at 50% and 90% field capacity, respectively. Non-glandular trichomes of the stem were observed with high density in both normal and stress conditions, which are more densely in 90% field capacity. Conclusions Since this plant has strong potential to be used in the food and pharmacological industries, this study provides valuable information for its cultivation and harvesting at specific phenological stages, depending on desired compounds and their concentrations.

The production of medicinal plants under stressful environments offers an alternative to meet the requirements of sustainable agriculture. The action of mycorrhizal fungus; Funneliformis mosseae and zinc in stimulating growth and stress tolerance in medicinal plants is an intriguing area of research. The current study evaluated the combined use of nano-zinc and mycorrhizal fungus on the physiochemical responses of Dracocephalum moldavica under salinity stress. The study employed a factorial based on a completely randomized design with three replications. The treatments were different levels of salinity (0, 50, and 100 mM NaCl), two levels of mycorrhiza application (0 and 5 g kg − 1 of soil), and two levels of foliar spraying of nano zinc oxide (0 and 1000 ppm). Salinity decreased the photosynthetic pigments content, SPAD value, and chlorophyll fluorescence data ( Fm , Fv , Fv/Fm ). Plant dry weight, Na + content, and essential oil content were significantly higher at 50 mM salinity + co-application of mycorrhiza and nano zinc oxide. Electrolyte leakage increased under salt stress, while mycorrhizal inoculation compensated for the trait. The main essential oil constituents were geranyl acetate, nerol, geranial, geraniol, viridiflorol, hexadecane, humulene, and germacrene D. Energy metabolism demonstrates the effectiveness of treatment combinations in promoting the biosynthesis and accumulation of essential oil components. The overall results with more comprehensive field-based studies would be advisable for the extension section to utilize marginal salty lands for the reliable production of a valuable medicinal plant.