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In Parasites, Pathogens, and Progress, Robert McGuire and Philip Coelho integrate biological and economic perspectives into an explanation of the historical development of humanity and the economy, paying particular attention to the American experience, its history and development. In their path-breaking examination of the impact of population growth and parasitic diseases, they contend that interpretations of history that minimize or ignore the physical environment are incomplete or wrong.The authors emphasize the paradoxical impact of population growth and density on progress. An increased population leads to increased market size, specialization, productivity, and living standards. Simultaneously, increased population density can provide an ecological niche for pathogens and parasites that prey upon humanity, increasing morbidity and mortality. The tension between diseases and progress continues, with progress dominant since the late 1800s.Integral to their story are the differential effects of diseases on different ethnic (racial) groups. McGuire and Coelho show that the Europeanization of the Americas, for example, was caused by Old World diseases unwittingly brought to the New World, not by superior technology and weaponry. The decimation of Native Americans by pathogens vastly exceeded that caused by war and human predation.The authors combine biological and economic analyses to explain the concentration of African slaves in the American South. African labor was more profitable in the South because Africans' evolutionary heritage enabled them to resist the diseases that became established there; conversely, Africans' ancestral heritage made them susceptible to northern \"cold-weather\" diseases. European disease resistance and susceptibilities were the opposite regionally. Differential regional disease ecologies thus led to a heritage of racial slavery and racism.

Several studies have been conducted using fungi in the biological control of domestic animals and humans. In this respect, a large amount of research has been undertaken to understand the particularities of each fungus used. These fungi have been demonstrated to act on all classes of helminthes. Therefore, they should not only be called nematophagous but also helmintophagous. Evidence of enzymatic action has also revealed their mechanism of action, as well as potential metabolites that could be synthesized as bioactive molecules. Cultural barriers to the use of fungi should be broken down, since the impact on the environment is minimal. In this context, much is already known about the mechanism of interaction of these organisms with their ‘targets’. Recent research has pointed to the search for substances derived from nematophagous fungi that have demonstrated their ovicidal and/or larvicidal activity, thus being a global premise to be studied further. Crude extracts derived from nematophagous fungi of predator and ovicidal groups reduce the amount of larvae of gastrointestinal nematodes and prevent the hatching of their eggs, since they have been demonstrated to act with extracellular proteases and other enzymes. Furthermore, the activity of these enzymes has begun to be explored regarding their possible interaction with the exoskeleton of arthropods, which could emerge as an alternative method of tick control. Finally, it should be clear that nematophagous fungi in general are ‘old friends’ that are ready to the ‘fight with our old enemies’, the gastrointestinal helminth parasites harmful to human and animal health.

Gastrointestinal parasites (GIP) and mineral deficiencies are significant factors affecting health and productivity of free-ranging cattle. Adequate mineral intake, particularly from natural mineral water sources (hora), is vital for immune function, gastrointestinal health, and nutrient absorption. This study aimed to explore the association between GIP burden and serum mineral concentrations in zebu cattle (Bos indicus) routinely accessing hora mineral water in southwestern Ethiopia. A total of 180 fecal samples were collected from cattle across four districts (Bedele, Dabo, Gechi, and Borecha) and analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively to determine parasite presence and fecal egg count. Concurrently, blood samples were collected to evaluate serum mineral concentrations. The overall GIP prevalence was 55.6%, with Strongyle-type nematodes being the dominant GIP group. Gechi district showed the highest prevalence (64.4%) and mean egg per gram (EPG) of 212.8 (p < 0.05). Although, serum mineral concentrations were generally adequate, significant variations were observed across districts. Strong negative correlations (p < 0.05) were observed between EPG and serum concentrations of zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), and copper (Cu), indicating that adequate intake of these minerals, potentially sourced from the hora mineral water, may be associated with improved resistance to parasitic infections. These negative correlations were supported by negative binomial regression analysis which identified Zn as the strongest predictor of EPG. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of hora as a natural mineral supplement in its association with lower GIP burden in free-ranging zebu cattle. While this study indicates a correlation between serum mineral concentrations and GIP burden in grazing cattle, controlled experiments are essential to determine the specific effects of individual minerals found in hora on parasite resistance and establish causality.

Poor sanitation is thought to be a major cause of enteric infections among young children. However, there are no previously published randomized trials to measure the health impacts of large-scale sanitation programs. India's Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) is one such program that seeks to end the practice of open defecation by changing social norms and behaviors, and providing technical support and financial subsidies. The objective of this study was to measure the effect of the TSC implemented with capacity building support from the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program in Madhya Pradesh on availability of individual household latrines (IHLs), defecation behaviors, and child health (diarrhea, highly credible gastrointestinal illness [HCGI], parasitic infections, anemia, growth). We conducted a cluster-randomized, controlled trial in 80 rural villages. Field staff collected baseline measures of sanitation conditions, behaviors, and child health (May-July 2009), and revisited households 21 months later (February-April 2011) after the program was delivered. The study enrolled a random sample of 5,209 children <5 years old from 3,039 households that had at least one child <24 months at the beginning of the study. A random subsample of 1,150 children <24 months at enrollment were tested for soil transmitted helminth and protozoan infections in stool. The randomization successfully balanced intervention and control groups, and we estimated differences between groups in an intention to treat analysis. The intervention increased percentage of households in a village with improved sanitation facilities as defined by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme by an average of 19% (95% CI for difference: 12%-26%; group means: 22% control versus 41% intervention), decreased open defecation among adults by an average of 10% (95% CI for difference: 4%-15%; group means: 73% intervention versus 84% control). However, the intervention did not improve child health measured in terms of multiple health outcomes (diarrhea, HCGI, helminth infections, anemia, growth). Limitations of the study included a relatively short follow-up period following implementation, evidence for contamination in ten of the 40 control villages, and bias possible in self-reported outcomes for diarrhea, HCGI, and open defecation behaviors. The intervention led to modest increases in availability of IHLs and even more modest reductions in open defecation. These improvements were insufficient to improve child health outcomes (diarrhea, HCGI, parasite infection, anemia, growth). The results underscore the difficulty of achieving adequately large improvements in sanitation levels to deliver expected health benefits within large-scale rural sanitation programs. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01465204. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.

Background Previous studies reported contradicting findings about the association between intestinal parasitosis and maternal anemia. In this study we aimed to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasitic infection and its association with anemia among pregnant women in Wondo Genet district, Southern Ethiopia. Methods This facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted in June and July 2018. Pregnant women ( n  = 352) were randomly drawn from five health centers using antenatal care follow-up lists. Trained data collectors administered the questionnaire. Capillary blood was collected and analyzed for hemoglobin using the HemoCue method. Stool sample was collected following standard procedure and analyzed for the presence and types of intestinal parasites using direct microscopy with Formalin-ether concentration technique. Association between intestinal parasitosis and anemia was measured using multivariable binary logistic regression analysis. The outputs are presented using adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results The overall prevalence of intestinal parasitic infection was 38.7% (95% CI: 33.6–43.8%). One-tenth (9.7%) of the pregnant women were infected with polyparasites. Ascaris lumbricoides was the predominant infection encountered in 24.9% of the women. The other infections identified were: hookworms (11.2%), Giardia lamblia (5.4%), Entamoeba histolytica (3.4%), Trichuris trichiura (2.9%) and Schistosoma mansoni (2.3%). The mean (± standard deviation) hemoglobin concentration was 12.3 (±1.9) g/dl and 31.5% (95% CI: 26.6–36.4%) women were anemic (hemoglobin < 11 g/dl). The prevalence of anemia among women infected with intestinal parasite (55.6%) was substantially higher than the prevalence in their counterparts (16.4%) ( p  <  0.001). In a multivariable model adjusted for multiple potential confounders including socio-economic status indicators, the odds of anemia were six times increased (AOR = 6.14, 95% CI: 2.04–18.45) among those affected by at least one intestinal parasite. Conclusion Strengthening the existing water, sanitation and hygiene programs and routine deworming of pregnant mothers may help to reduce the burden of both intestinal parasitic infection and anemia in pregnant women.

Epithelial tuft cells secretion of IL-25 is shown to regulate type 2 epithelial responses to helminth parasite infection via an IL-13/IL-4Rα-dependent feedback loop. Epithelial tuft cells in type 2 immunity The 'weep-and-sweep' response to parasitic helminths and allergens, in which parasites are ejected by increased propulsive activity of the gut combined with fluid and mucus secretion, is a manifestation of type 2 (or allergic) immunity involving the activation of group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s). The epithelium in the small intestine consists of five or more distinct cellular lineages, including tuft cells, whose functions remain unclear. Two papers in this issue of Nature demonstrate a role for tuft cells in the response to parasites. Richard Locksley and colleagues show that tuft cells are the source of the interleukin 25 (IL-25) that is required for activation of ILC2s, ILC2-regulated tuft and goblet cell expansion, and control of parasite infection. Philippe Jay and colleagues show that tuft cells secrete IL-25 via an IL-13/IL-4R -dependent feedback loop. Helminth parasitic infections are a major global health and social burden 1 . The host defence against helminths such as Nippostrongylus brasiliensis is orchestrated by type 2 cell-mediated immunity 2 . Induction of type 2 cytokines, including interleukins (IL) IL-4 and IL-13, induce goblet cell hyperplasia with mucus production, ultimately resulting in worm expulsion 3 , 4 . However, the mechanisms underlying the initiation of type 2 responses remain incompletely understood. Here we show that tuft cells, a rare epithelial cell type in the steady-state intestinal epithelium 5 , are responsible for initiating type 2 responses to parasites by a cytokine-mediated cellular relay. Tuft cells have a Th2-related gene expression signature 6 and we demonstrate that they undergo a rapid and extensive IL-4Rα-dependent amplification following infection with helminth parasites, owing to direct differentiation of epithelial crypt progenitor cells. We find that the Pou2f3 gene is essential for tuft cell specification. Pou2f3 −/− mice lack intestinal tuft cells and have defective mucosal type 2 responses to helminth infection; goblet cell hyperplasia is abrogated and worm expulsion is compromised. Notably, IL-4Rα signalling is sufficient to induce expansion of the tuft cell lineage, and ectopic stimulation of this signalling cascade obviates the need for tuft cells in the epithelial cell remodelling of the intestine. Moreover, tuft cells secrete IL-25, thereby regulating type 2 immune responses. Our data reveal a novel function of intestinal epithelial tuft cells and demonstrate a cellular relay required for initiating mucosal type 2 immunity to helminth infection.

In wildlife populations, group-living is thought to increase the probability of parasite transmission because contact rates increase at high host densities. Physical contact, such as social grooming, is an important component of group structure, but it can also increase the risk of exposure to infection for individuals because it provides a mechanism for transmission of potentially pathogenic organisms. Living in groups can also create variation in susceptibility to infection among individuals because circulating levels of immunosuppressive hormones like glucocorticoids often depend on an individual's position within the group's social structure. Yet, little is known about the relative roles of socially mediated exposure versus susceptibility in parasite transmission among free-living animal groups. To address this issue, we investigate the relationship between host dominance hierarchy and nematode parasite transmission among females in a wild group of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui). We use social network analysis to describe each individual female's position within the grooming network in relation to dominance rank and relative levels of infection. Our results suggest that the number of directly-transmitted parasite species infecting each female, and the relative amount of transmission stages that one of these species sheds in faeces, both increase with dominance rank. Female centrality within the network, which shows positive associations with dominance hierarchy, is also positively associated with infection by certain parasite species, suggesting that the measured rank-bias in transmission may reflect variation in exposure rather than susceptibility. This is supported by the lack of a clear relationship between rank and faecal cortisol, as an indicator of stress, in a subset of these females. Thus, socially mediated exposure appears to be important for direct transmission of nematode parasites, lending support to the idea that a classical fitness trade-off inherent to living in groups can exist.

Intestinal parasites are a major public health problem worldwide, especially in societies with low socioeconomic status and where sanitation rules are not sufficiently emphasized. School-age children are the most affected group in these societies. In light of the literature data, the intestinal parasites detected in school-age children and the geographical and socioeconomic structure of Turkey are evaluated together. The study hypothesizes that the parasite prevalence in school-age children is high, and there is substantial socioeconomic and geographical variation in species-specific prevalence. It is aimed to determine the pooled prevalence of intestinal parasite infections in school-age children in Turkey, identify the common parasite species, and compare the prevalence in different geographical regions of Turkey. The Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and TR index databases were searched to access published articles reporting the presence of intestinal parasites among school-age children in Turkey. The prevalence of intestinal parasites was calculated using a random effects model. Subgroup analyses were performed according to the parasite species and geographical regions of Turkey. Also, year-based meta-regression analyses were conducted. A total of 204.754 samples from 99 articles were included in the analysis. The pooled prevalence of intestinal parasites was 29%, with high heterogeneity (I2 = 99.88%, P < 0.001). The subgroup analysis revealed that the Southeastern Anatolia is the region with higher prevalence of intestinal parasites among school-age children, with a rate of 41% (I2 = 99.44%, P < 0.001). Subgroup analysis for parasite species revealed that G. intestinalis/duedonalis/labmblia (11%; 95% CI: 9%-13%, I2 = 99.85) was the most frequently detected parasite in school-age children, followed by Blastocystis spp., Enterobius vermicularis, Entamoeba coli, Ascaris lumbricoides and Entamoeba histolytica/dispar. The prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections (IPI) among school-age children in Turkey is particularly high in Southeastern Anatolia, the Mediterranean, and Eastern Anatolia. Socioeconomic conditions, education, and geography are the main factors that affect this situation. It is crucial for school-age children and their parents to receive education on the transmission mechanisms of intestinal parasitic infections (IPIs) and strategies for their prevention. Furthermore, it is essential for local governments and public authorities to upgrade infrastructure to ensure that drinking water and food are not contaminated by polluted water sources.