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Offshore wind energy technology
This reference book is based on research material developed by the Norwegian Research Centre for Offshore Wind Technology and teaching material developed by the authors over the last 20 years. It covers all aspects of offshore wind energy technology including the wind resource and the offshore environment; wind energy conversion systems technology, control and materials; grid connection and system integration; novel structures including bottom-fixed and floating; operation and maintenance strategies and technologies; and design tools for novel offshore wind energy concepts.
Book
Greening the wind : environmental and social considerations for wind power development
Wind power is widely regarded as a key component of an environmentally sustainable, low-carbon energy future because it is renewable, requires almost no water, and generates near-zero emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Nonetheless, wind power development can involve significant environmental and social impacts that need to be fully recognized and appropriately managed. Of particular concern are (i) biodiversity-related impacts upon birds, bats, and natural habitats; (ii) visual impacts, noise, radar and telecommunications interference, and other local nuisance impacts; and (iii) land acquisition, benefits-sharing, indigenous communities, and other socio-economic and cultural issues.This book, Greening the Wind: Environmental and Social Considerations for Wind Power Development in Latin America and Beyond, describes the key environmental and social impacts that are associated with large-scale, grid-connected wind power development. It builds upon recent World Bank experience with wind power development in Latin America and other regions where wind power is growing rapidly. The book describes good practices and provides advice for the planning, construction, and operation of land-based wind power projects in ways that can (i) avoid significant harm to birds, bats, and natural habitats; (ii) manage visual and other local impacts in ways acceptable to most stakeholders; and (iii) effectively address compensation, benefits-sharing, and socio-cultural concerns. It provides information to enable wind project investors and operators, governments, development organizations, researchers, NGOs, and others to support wind power with reduced adverse environmental and social impactsthereby enhancing the long-term sustainability of this renewable energy technology. Specific chapters cover (i) key characteristics and trends in wind power
development; (ii) making wind power safer for biodiversity; and (iii) addressing the social impacts of wind power development.
eBook
Local and Mesoscale Impacts of Wind Farms as Parameterized in a Mesoscale NWP Model
A new wind farm parameterization has been developed for the mesoscale numerical weather prediction model, the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF). The effects of wind turbines are represented by imposing a momentum sink on the mean flow; transferring kinetic energy into electricity and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE). The parameterization improves upon previous models, basing the atmospheric drag of turbines on the thrust coefficient of a modern commercial turbine. In addition, the source of TKE varies with wind speed, reflecting the amount of energy extracted from the atmosphere by the turbines that does not produce electrical energy.
Analyses of idealized simulations of a large offshore wind farm are presented to highlight the perturbation induced by the wind farm and its interaction with the atmospheric boundary layer (BL). A wind speed deficit extended throughout the depth of the neutral boundary layer, above and downstream from the farm, with a long wake of 60-km e-folding distance. Within the farm the wind speed deficit reached a maximum reduction of 16%. A maximum increase of TKE, by nearly a factor of 7, was located within the farm. The increase in TKE extended to the top of the BL above the farm due to vertical transport and wind shear, significantly enhancing turbulent momentum fluxes. The TKE increased by a factor of 2 near the surface within the farm. Near-surface winds accelerated by up to 11%. These results are consistent with the few results available from observations and large-eddy simulations, indicating this parameterization provides a reasonable means of exploring potential downwind impacts of large wind farms.
Journal Article
Wind-Turbine and Wind-Farm Flows: A Review
Wind energy, together with other renewable energy sources, are expected to grow substantially in the coming decades and play a key role in mitigating climate change and achieving energy sustainability. One of the main challenges in optimizing the design, operation, control, and grid integration of wind farms is the prediction of their performance, owing to the complex multiscale two-way interactions between wind farms and the turbulent atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). From a fluid mechanical perspective, these interactions are complicated by the high Reynolds number of the ABL flow, its inherent unsteadiness due to the diurnal cycle and synoptic-forcing variability, the ubiquitous nature of thermal effects, and the heterogeneity of the terrain. Particularly important is the effect of ABL turbulence on wind-turbine wake flows and their superposition, as they are responsible for considerable turbine power losses and fatigue loads in wind farms. These flow interactions affect, in turn, the structure of the ABL and the turbulent fluxes of momentum and scalars. This review summarizes recent experimental, computational, and theoretical research efforts that have contributed to improving our understanding and ability to predict the interactions of ABL flow with wind turbines and wind farms.
Journal Article
Wind power : sailboats, windmills, and wind turbines
\"This book details the history, current uses, and potential future applications of wind energy.\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
Turbulent kinetic energy over large offshore wind farms observed and simulated by the mesoscale model WRF (3.8.1)
Wind farms affect local weather and microclimates; hence, parameterizations of their effects have been developed for numerical weather prediction models. While most wind farm parameterizations (WFPs) include drag effects of wind farms, models differ on whether or not an additional turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) source should be included in these parameterizations to simulate the impact of wind farms on the boundary layer. Therefore, we use aircraft measurements above large offshore wind farms in stable conditions to evaluate WFP choices. Of the three case studies we examine, we find the simulated ambient background flow to agree with observations of temperature stratification and winds. This agreement allows us to explore the sensitivity of simulated wind farm effects with respect to modeling choices such as whether or not to include a TKE source, horizontal resolution, vertical resolution and advection of TKE. For a stably stratified marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL), a TKE source and a horizontal resolution on the order of 5 km or finer are necessary to represent the impact of offshore wind farms on the MABL. Additionally, TKE advection results in excessively reduced TKE over the wind farms, which in turn causes an underestimation of the wind speed deficit above the wind farm. Furthermore, using fine vertical resolution increases the agreement of the simulated wind speed with satellite observations of surface wind speed.
Journal Article
Wind resource assessment Offshore Fujian using 30-year wind estimates
China has set ambitious goals for the development of offshore wind energy to meet the increasing energy needs of coastal provinces. The initial phase of offshore wind energy development involves evaluating the wind resource and identifying the most promising locations for wind farms. It is crucial to assess the characteristics and potential of wind energy beforehand. This study conducts a comprehensive assessment of offshore wind resource near Fujian China. Wind measurement devices were deployed at XiaPu and PingTan to collect wind profile data and meteorological conditions for one year. Various wind characteristics, including average wind speed, frequency of wind direction, wind shears and turbulence intensity were analyzed. An adaptive Measure‑Correlate‑Predict methodology was utilized to estimate wind conditions over 30‑years span. Measured Wind energy density values range from 3082.63 and 11753.52 kWh/m 2 /year. The peak daily average wind speeds are prevailing between 12 a.m. and 11 p.m with lower turbulence intensity and higher wind shear exponent, such condition is suitable for development of wind power. The variation in the wind shear exponent, and wind speed changes with the seasons. The 90th percentile of turbulence intensity was found to be below the standard set for IEC Class A + The extreme wind speed associated with a 50-year return period was 38.0m/s at a height of 100m, leading to the recommendation of wind turbine class II. However, taking into account the ambient turbulence intensity, it might be advisable to upgrade the turbine class to IEC Class A + .
Journal Article