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Although Adam Smith (1776) and Alfred Marshall (1920) emphasized the gains from specialization that arise from the division of labor, their focus was on the manufacturing sector. Both saw farming as being on too small a scale and bereft of economics of scale, with a market that was too small and local, with too sharp a seasonality, and too quick a succession of tasks to support either the development of a division of labor over the tasks of a cropping season or of mechanization. Smith and Marshall's vision of farming-and its implications for division of labor and mechanization-was manifest again in the 1950s to the present in Asia. Ruttan (2001) puts forward nearly the same ideas and terms as Smith and Marshall, but for contemporary small rice farms in Asia. He emphasizes that the use of machines for the series of short tasks performed on tiny farms would imply costly investment in specialized machines that small farmers would be loath to make. And even if these farmers mechanized, Ruttan posited that it would not induce a segmented and specialized farm labor market as again, the critical mass of demand for each segment would not be present. Otsuka (2012) goes further along these lines to note that only on larger farms would the mechanization investment, at least for large machines, pay off to farmers. Thus the path to efficient mechanization must have as a first step a sharp increase in Asian farm size from the current 1-3 ha average to considerably more. In contrast to this bleak prognosis for the Asian small farm sector to develop a division of labor and to mechanize, here we show that China with farm sizes averaging below one ha, a high degree of land fragmentation, and a decline in labor supply in the countryside since the mid-2000s (Cai and Wang 2008; Zhang, Yang, and Wang 2011) has seen steadily increasing farm output and yields over the past two decades. We argue that the contradiction can, in part, be explained by increasing mechanization. Especially since 2004, there has been rapid farm mechanization in the areas of ownership and rental, plus rapid development of farm mechanization services that combine the provision of specialized labor and the services of large harvesting machines. We focus on the latter services, in particular, their manifestation in the emergence of a cluster of farmer companies that sell harvesting services (as harvesting is the most `heavy' of the tasks) across the provinces of China and throughout the year. By taking advantage of a national services market that includes labor and machinery, these farmer companies have overcome the constraints logically identified by the economists cited above. Reprinted by permission of the American Agricultural Economics Association

The shift from increasing grain production to improving grain quality is a key measure to adapt to the changing structure of residents’ food consumption demand. High-standard farmland construction is an important means to achieve high grain production and excellent quality. To estimate the intervention effect of high-standard farmland construction policy, this paper analyzes it from the perspective of policy evaluation. The continuous DID model, moderating effect model, and the mediating effect model are used to systematically analyze the mechanism of high-standard farmland construction policy and its influence on grain quality. The findings are as follows: (1) The high-standard farmland construction policy has a significant promoting effect on grain quality, and the interaction coefficient of policy implementation is 0.074. is the results are still significant under the robustness test of lagging the explanatory variable by one period, replacing the core explanatory variable, changing the timing of policy implementation, and eliminating the interference of other relevant policies. (2) The adoption of environmentally friendly technology has played a positive moderating role in the process by which high-standard farmland construction policy promotes grain quality, with a moderating effect of 0.044. (3) The high-standard farmland construction policy can improve grain quality by improving cultivated land quality and adoption level of agricultural mechanization. (4) Heterogeneity analysis shows that high-standard farmland construction policy in major grain-producing areas and also non-major grain-producing areas can increase grain quality; the implementation of the policy has a more obvious effect on improving grain quality in areas with low distribution of grain quality. Accordingly, it is suggested to continue to promote high-standard farmland construction and implement special actions for farmland protection, focus on key technologies, encourage farmers to adopt environment-friendly technologies, accelerate the cultivation of diversified agricultural machinery service entities, and enhance the abilities of agricultural mechanization operations. This study provides a new perspective for improving grain quality and proves that a high-standard farmland construction policy is an important strategy for increasing grain quality.

The market for mechanization services is underdeveloped in countries like Nigeria, with uneven supply across locations. Much tractor service in Nigeria is provided by government through either subsidized direct sales or public tractor hiring service (Promoting Pro-Poor Opportunities in Commodity and Service Markets 2011), though private owner operators are emerging. While commercial markets exist in Nigeria where imported tractors are sold, the effective demand may be small and limited to private owner operators who have managed to accumulate sufficient capital through business expansion after first acquiring subsidized tractors. Due to the low operational capacity and poor maintenance of equipment among public service providers, suboptimal distribution of subsidized tractors, and high fixed costs, current adoption of mechanization may be highly constrained by the lack of supply, leaving potential demand unmet for the majority of small-holder farmers. We investigate two hypotheses: (a) In Nigeria, the use of mechanization, particularly tractors, may affect the characteristics of farm households in heterogeneous ways; and (b) can potentially raise the income of small-holder semisubsistence farmers growing traditional staple crops. We use two methods. First, using cluster analysis methods we assess how the use of mechanization is associated with farm household types and production behaviors. Second, we use a simple linear programming to simulate a farm household model to assess the potential demand for and effect of mechanized land preparation across major types of small-holder farmers in Nigeria, given their level of seasonal labor demand, liquidity constraints, and off-farm income earning opportunities. Reprinted by permission of the American Agricultural Economics Association

Research on agricultural transformation in Africa focuses on the adoption of modern technologies such as improved seed varieties and chemical fertilizer, and the policies required to promote their adoption. Agricultural mechanization has received less attention in recent academic literature, international policy dialogue, and program formulation (Pingali 2007; Mrema, Baker, and Kahan 2008). The demand for mechanized services by smallholder farmers, on the other hand, has grown recently, and governments in such countries as Ghana and Nigeria are devoting significant resources to promote agricultural mechanization. Reprinted by permission of the American Agricultural Economics Association

The agricultural sector is one of the major sectors that have an impact on environmental dynamics through carbon emissions from sectoral processes. Since energy is consumed directly by agricultural sector through the cultivation of fields with machinery, sustainable production activities are among the practices that need to be promoted in order to combat climate change. The aim of this research is to determine energy efficiency, cost analysis, and carbon emissions of sweet cherry cultivation. This research was conducted during the 2019–2020 period in Ulukışla district of Niğde province/Türkiye. Based on face-to-face survey data on farmers, this study analysed the influence of the energy equivalent of each stage of agricultural mechanization level on sweet cherry production. Within the methodology of the study, the energy values per unit area of the inputs in sweet cherry production period, including soil tillage, irrigation, fertilization, spraying, pruning and harvesting, were computed. The energy yield of the product and the total cost and profit values and the amount of CO2 emissions were also computed. All dynamics in the production process such as tractor implements, fuel consumption, and human labour costs were evaluated. The energy embodied in production process was classified into direct and indirect, and their shares in total energy consumption were additionally determined. According to the findings of the current research, total energy input (EI) and energy output (EO) were computed as 54,292.66 MJ/ha and 81,352.65 MJ/ha, and the energy ratio value calculated as 1.50. As a result of the cost (expense) analysis, the profit value was calculated as 42,436.61 TL/ha. The results showed that the most energy consuming input, at a rate of 12,862.13 kgCO2/ha, was nitrogen fertilization.

Agricultural mechanisation promotes continuous cultivation on a piece of land and expansion of the area under cultivation, thereby intensifying competition for land. This impacts the land tenure system based on customary land tenure and communal landholding that thrived under land fallowing. Situated within the evolutionary theory of land rights and adopting an empirical qualitative research approach, this paper examines the effects of agricultural mechanisation on customary land tenure relations in Ghana's Transitional Zone. The paper argues that the widespread adoption of agricultural mechanisation has led to farm extensification and intensification which have engendered intense competition and conflicts over land and trends towards individual landholding. This has provided the arsenals for manipulation by the powerful in society and ushering in a new form of customary land tenure relations that replaces traditional social relations with capitalist relations and creates tension between allodial rights holders and the usufructuary and customary tenancy rights holders

Population aging has become a significant issue faced by major global economies. The rapid urbanisation process in China has led to a higher rate of aging in rural areas compared to urban areas. Existing studies have predominantly focused on the impact of aging on agricultural economics and production, with limited exploration into its effects on large-scale agriculture. Given the importance of large-scale agriculture as a crucial initiative for expanding agricultural investment and increasing land capital accumulation, it is pertinent to further investigate the implications of aging in this sector. The empirical examination of the impact of population aging on large-scale agriculture holds significant relevance for developing countries globally. These nations face dual challenges: an aging population and the need for agricultural modernisation. Research can aid in formulating targeted policies to address labour shortages, agricultural technological innovation, and market dynamics, thereby promoting sustainable development and food security. This study utilises data from China’s Third National Agricultural Census and employs measurements of aging at both the rural household and county-city dimensions. The analysis includes an examination of the moderating effects of per capita arable land area and the level of mechanisation on the impact of aging on large-scale agriculture. The findings of the study are as follows: (1) From the perspective of rural households, aging leads to an increase in the age of the rural labour force, resulting in a significant decrease in the probability of rural households participating in large-scale agriculture. (2) At the county-city level, aging contributes to a decline in the proportion of the population participating in large-scale agriculture, which is detrimental to the development of this sector. (3) In certain circumstances, the negative impact of aging on large-scale agriculture is exacerbated in areas with higher levels of agricultural mechanisation.

Automation in agriculture is made possible by the integration of advanced agricultural technology and precision agriculture management. This book, uniquely, will focus on applications of automation to the important industry of tree fruit production. Written by experts in agricultural automation technology from around the world, chapters in this book cover topics such as automated tree fruit production systems, plant stress sensing and high-throughput phenotyping in precision horticulture, the economics of automation in tree fruit production, light interception sensing systems for canopy management, precision irrigation and water management, precision technologies for pest and disease management, opportunities for the application of robotics in tree fruit production, and the mechanical harvesting and handling of fruit crops.The book is a representative, concise overview of the variety of technologies currently being applied to tree fruit crops around the world and the challenges faced by engineers and farmers that these technologies raise. It is aimed at researchers and graduate students of agriculture systems, agricultural and biological engineering, crop and soil sciences, horticulture, precision agriculture, and other relevant disciplines. It will also be of use to agriculture consultants, engineers, and other professionals such as agricultural equipment manufacturers and management professionals who use precision agriculture technologies.Key Features:- Takes a systematic approach to how to apply precision and automation technologies to fruit production.- Combines the disciplines of economics, horticulture, and engineering.- Illustrated by case studies throughout describing actual applications of automation technology.

Increasing agricultural operating income is not only an important step in improving agricultural work for farmers in the new era, but is also a powerful way to promote rural revitalization. To improve our understanding of the high-quality development of agriculture in China, the factors limiting agricultural income and the impact of the level of agricultural mechanization on agricultural production and income and its mechanism were analysed. Based on field survey data on farmers, this study analysed the influence of agricultural mechanization level on agricultural production and income by utilizing a sample-modified endogenous merging model and a threshold effect model. The level of mechanization has a significant positive impact on the cost, output value, income and return rate of all types of crops. For every 1% increase in the level of mechanization, the yields of all crops, grain crops and cash crops increase by 1.2151, 1.5941 and 0.4351%, respectively. Heterogeneity analysis shows that the level of mechanization has a certain threshold effect on income, with a greater effect occurring after the threshold. A test of action mechanism shows that the mechanization level can increase income via a factor intensification path and quality improvement path, with the partial mediation effects of the two paths being 28.8 and 27.4%, respectively. It is recommended to increase subsidies to purchase agricultural machinery, research and promote machinery suitable for cash crops, increase the level of socialized agricultural services, and improve the ability of farmers to apply novel agricultural machinery and tools so as to increase their operating profits.

Agriculture plays an indispensable role in the economic system of all countries, and the issue of agricultural carbon emissions has become a challenge to the sustainable development of the global economy. Against this backdrop, based on the data of 30 provinces, municipalities directly under the central government and autonomous regions (excluding Hong Kong, Macau and Tibet) in China from 2005 to 2019, this current study comprehensively uses the two-way fixed effect panel model and panel vector autoregressive (PVAR) model to explore the static and dynamic relationships between agricultural mechanization, large-scale operation and agricultural carbon emissions. Analysis show that agricultural mechanization and large-scale operation promote the agricultural carbon emissions, and increasing the level of urbanization will help curb the increase of agricultural carbon emissions. However, in a dynamic perspective, there is a two-way granger causality relationship between agricultural mechanization and agricultural carbon emissions. Agricultural mechanization is an important cause of agricultural carbon emissions and its promoting effect is sustainable, while the short-term effect of large-scale operation on agricultural carbon emissions is positive, and in the long run it helps reduce agricultural carbon emissions. Accordingly, the study recommends that the government should make the following efforts: firstly, speed up the research and development of agricultural machinery driven by clean energy; secondly, guide the effective transfer of land and encourage farmers to reduce the amount of agricultural chemical materials input while improving the use efficiency of pesticide chemical materials; thirdly, uphold the concept of ecological civilization in the process of promoting urbanization.