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"Nicholas A. Robins"
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Mercury, Mining, and Empire
On the basis of an examination of the colonial mercury and silver production processes and related labor systems, Mercury, Mining, and Empire explores the effects of mercury pollution in colonial Huancavelica, Peru, and Potosí, in present-day Bolivia. The book presents a multifaceted and interwoven tale of what colonial exploitation of indigenous peoples and resources left in its wake. It is a socio-ecological history that explores the toxic interrelationships between mercury and silver production, urban environments, and the people who lived and worked in them. Nicholas A. Robins tells the story of how native peoples in the region were conscripted into the noxious ranks of foot soldiers of proto-globalism, and how their fate, and that of their communities, was-and still is-chained to it.
eBook
Of Love and Loathing
Policies concerning marriage, morality, and intimacy were central to the efforts of the Spanish monarchy to maintain social control in colonial Charcas. The Bourbon Crown depended on the patriarchal, caste-based social system on which its colonial enterprise was built to maintain control over a vast region that today encompasses Bolivia and parts of Peru, Chile, Paraguay, and Argentina. Intimacy became a fulcrum of social control contested by individuals, families, the state, and the Catholic Church, and deeply personal emotions and experiences were unwillingly transformed into social, political, and moral challenges.
InOf Love and Loathing, Nicholas A. Robins examines the application of late-colonial Bourbon policies concerning marriage, morality, and intimacy. Robins examines how such policies and the means by which they were enforced highlight the moral, racial, and patriarchal ideals of the time, and, more important, the degree to which the policies were evaded. Not only did free unions, illegitimate children, and de facto divorces abound, but women also had significantly more agency regarding resources, relationships, and movement than has previously been recognized. A surprising image of society emerges from Robins's analysis, one with considerably more moral latitude than can be found from the perspectives of religious doctrine and regal edicts.
eBook
Native Insurgencies and the Genocidal Impulse in the Americas
This book investigates three Indian revolts in the Americas: the 1680
uprising of the Pueblo Indians against the Spanish; the Great Rebellion in Bolivia,
1780--82; and the Caste War of Yucatan that began in 1849 and was not finally
crushed until 1903. Nicholas A. Robins examines their causes, course, nature,
leadership, and goals. He finds common features: they were revitalization movements
that were both millenarian and exterminatory in their means and objectives; they
sought to restore native rule and traditions to their societies; and they were
movements born of despair and oppression that were sustained by the belief that they
would witness the dawning of a new age. His work underscores the link that may be
found, but is not inherent, between genocide, millennialism, and revitalization
movements in Latin America during the colonial and early national periods.
eBook
Genocides by the Oppressed
In the last two decades, the field of comparative genocide studies has
produced an increasingly rich literature on the targeting of various groups for
extermination and other atrocities, throughout history and around the contemporary
world. However, the phenomenon of genocides by the oppressed, that is, retributive
genocidal actions carried out by subaltern actors, has received almost no attention.
The prominence in such genocides of non-state actors, combined with the perceived
moral ambiguities of retributive genocide that arise in analyzing genocidal acts
from below, have so far eluded serious investigation. Genocides by the Oppressed
addresses this oversight, opening the subject of subaltern genocide for exploration
by scholars of genocide, ethnic conflict, and human rights. Focusing on case studies
of such genocide, the contributors explore its sociological, anthropological,
psychological, symbolic, and normative dimensions.
eBook
Mercury Production and Use in Colonial Andean Silver Production: Emissions and Health Implications
Background: Colonial cinnabar mining and refining began in Huancavelica, Peru, in 1564. With a local source of mercury, the amalgamation process was adopted to refine silver in Potosí, Bolivia, in the early 1570s. As a result, large quantities of mercury were released into the environment. Objectives: We used archival, primary, and secondary sources to develop the first estimate of mercury emissions from cinnabar refining in Huancavelica and tó revise previous estimates of emissions from silver refining in Potosí during the colonial period (1564-1810). Discussion: Although other estimates of historical mercury emissions have recognized Potosí as a significant source, Huancavelica has been overlooked. In addition, previous estimates of mercury emissions from silver refining underestimated emissions because of unrecorded (contraband) production and volatilization of mercury during processing and recovery. Archival descriptions document behavioral and health issues during the colonial period that are consistent with known effects of mercury intoxication. Conclusions: According to our calculations, between 1564 and 1810, an estimated 17,000 metric tons of mercury vapor were emitted from cinnabar smelting in Huancavelica, and an estimated 39,000 metric tons were released as vapor during silver refining operations in Potosí. Huancavelica and Potosí combined contributed > 25% of the 196,000 metric tons of mercury vapor emissions in all of Latin America between 1500 and 1800. The historical record is laden with evidence of mercury intoxication consistent with effects recognized today. Our estimates serve as the foundation of investigations of present-day contamination in Huancavelica and Potosí resulting from historical emissions of mercury.
Journal Article
Huancavelica, Peru
This essay discusses the work of an American NGO, the Environmental Health Council, in documenting and remediating mercury and other heavy metal contamination in Huancavelica, Peru. The nearby Santa Bárbara and Challacatana hills are among the most extensive cinnabar deposits in the world. Mercury distilled in Huancavelica during the Spanish colonial period was dispatched throughout the Andean region and was a requisite input for the production of silver through the amalgamation process. While this stimulated the rise of modern globalism, it has left extensive contamination in its wake with which contemporary residents contend.
Journal Article
Crimes of Sensuality
Despite the legal and ecclesiastical insistence on church-sanctioned marriage, consensual unions and extramarital affairs were commonplace both in Charcas and Spanish America. Such unions ranged from transitory, clandestine liaisons to public, long-term relationships. To some degree illicit romance was the consequence of forced marriages or those of economic convenience, yet it also reflected a geographically mobile society. Despite the prevalence and social acceptance of illicit relationships, they carried the inherent risk of both civil and religious sanctions, which could include fines, incarceration, banishment, and excommunication. Beginning in the seventeenth century, concubinage came under the purview of civil authorities, although cases
Book Chapter
The Most Bitter Life One Can Conceive
Under canon law, divorce is a perpetual separation of bed and board, while an annulment establishes that the marriage never existed.¹ Causes for temporary separation, which could result in permanent divorce, included sevicia, infidelity, transmissible or chronic diseases, heresy, abandonment, and inducement to commit a crime. Annulments were possible only in cases of bigamy, coercion, lack of consummation, and egregious omissions in the marriage process. The claim of coercion often depended on the idea of “reverential fear,” or fear of another in a position of power over oneself and on whom one depended, to whom obedience was expected.²
It was
Book Chapter
The “Owner of Her Will”
Among the goals of the Bourbon monarchs, especially of Charles III (1759–1788), was the centralization of political power, the erosion of the power and wealth of the Catholic Church, the preservation of social hierarchies through the assertion of morality and patriarchy, and the assertion of law over custom. Regulating marriage was one means of achieving these aims because it transferred power from couples and the church to the father and the state. With roots in Roman and precedent in Spanish law, the Pragmática Sanción of 1776 was a watershed in this regard. It allowed fathers or other guardians in
Book Chapter