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"Lightbown, Patsy"
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كيف نتعلم اللغات
يتناول الكتاب عدة موضوعات منها كيف نتعلم اللغات، حيث يفصل لك كل ما يخص بتعلم اللغات منذ البداية في مرحلة الطفولة وحتى الكبر. يبدأ الفصل الأول من الكتاب بالحديث عن تعلم اللغة في الطفولة المبكرة، والفصل الثاني يسلط الضوء على تفسير اكتساب اللغة الثانية، والفصل الثالث يدور حول الفروق الفردية في تعلم اللغة الثانية، والفصل الرابع عن لغة المتعلم، والفصل الخامس يسلط الضوء على مراقبة التعلم والتعليم في قاعة درس اللغة الثانية، والفصل السادس عن تعلم اللغة الثانية في قاعة الدرس، والسابع يدور حور الآراء الشائعة عن تعلم اللغات ويثبت ما فيها من صواب وخطأ.
BOOK
Teaching and learning L2 in the classroom: It's about time
One of the challenges facing second and foreign language (L2) teachers and learners in primary and secondary school settings is the limited amount of time available. There is disagreement about how to meet this challenge. In this paper we argue against two ‘common sense’ recommendations for increasing instructional time – start as early as possible and use only the L2 (avoiding the use of the first language (L1)) in the classroom. We propose two better ways to increase the instructional time: provide periods of intensive instruction later in the curriculum and integrate the teaching of language and content. Studies in schools settings around the world have failed to find long-term advantages for an early start or exclusive use of the L2 in the classroom. Nevertheless, many language educators and policy makers continue to adopt these practices, basing their choice on their own intuitions and public opinion rather than on evidence from research.
Journal Article
Perfecting Practice
This special issue contains reports of research on a variety of variables that are hypothesized to have an impact on how practice affects language learning. This includes spacing of practice opportunities, the provision of feedback, training working memory, and oral versus written input. Each study is complex and clearly contextualized within the research on the multiple roles of practice for second language learning. Teachers (especially those who teach younger learners) would not find it easy to access these articles because of their complexity and sophistication. However, it is important for researchers and teacher educators to find ways to share the findings of such studies and the ideas behind them so that teachers can assess their relevance for their own instruction.
Journal Article
Form-Focused Instruction: Isolated or Integrated?
There is increasing consensus that form‐focused instruction helps learners in communicative or content‐based instruction to learn features of the target language that they may not acquire without guidance. The subject of this article is the role of instruction that is provided in separate (isolated) activities or within the context of communicative activities (integrated). Research suggests that both types of instruction can be beneficial, depending on the language feature to be learned, as well as characteristics of the learner and the learning conditions. For example, isolated lessons may be necessary to help learners who share the same first language (L1) overcome problems related to L1 influence on their interlanguage; integrated instruction may be best for helping learners develop the kind of fluency and automaticity that are needed for communication outside the classroom. The evidence suggests that teachers and students see the benefits of both types of instruction. Explanations for the effectiveness of each type of instruction are drawn from theoretical work in second language acquisition and cognitive psychology as well as from empirical research.
Journal Article
Comprehension-Based Practice
The authors report the results of a 2-year longitudinal comparison of grade 3 and grade 4 English-as-a-second-language learners in an experimental, comprehension-based program and those in a regular (i.e., more typical) language learning program. The goal was to examine the extent to which sustained, long-term comprehension practice in both listening and reading - in the virtual absence of any speaking - can help develop learners' second language (L2) pronunciation. The authors analyzed learners' sentences from an elicited imitation task using several accuracy and fluency measures as well as listener ratings of accentedness, comprehensibility, and fluency. They found no differences between the two programs at the end of year 1. However, at the end of year 2, there were some differences - namely, in the listener ratings of fluency and comprehensibility - that favored learners in the regular program. These findings highlight the beneficial effects of comprehension practice for the development of L2 pronunciation but also point to some potential limits of this practice. (Verlag, adapt.).
Journal Article
Instruction, first language influence, and developmental readiness in second language acquisition
The researchers pretested 150 francophone children (age 11-12 years) with a variety of measures (including oral production, a preference task, and scrambled questions) designed to probe their knowledge and use of English questions. Each child's developmental stage (in terms of the stages of acquisition of English questions proposed by Pienemann, Johnston, & Brindley, 1988) was determined. In oral production, most students were at stage 2 of the 5-stage sequence. Over the next 2 weeks, they participated in classroom activities that exposed them to hundreds of English questions, mostly consistent with stage 4 and stage 5. These focussed activities were guided by their regular classroom teachers and integrated into the communicative activities that were typical of their English as a second language (ESL) program. The focussed activities accounted for about 1 hour out of a 4- or 5-hour day in these intensive ESL classes. Following this intervention, the children were posttested, using essentially the same measures used on the pretest. Contrary to the predictions of Pienemann's (1985) teachability hypothesis, learners who were at stage 3 prior to the focussed activities did not progress more in their use of questions in the oral production task than students at stage 2 at the time of the pretest. However, on other tasks, there was evidence that all students had some knowledge of stage 4 and stage 5 questions. Further analysis showed that students tended to accept higher stage questions (with inversion of subject and verb) if the subjects were pronouns, but not if they were nouns. This pattern is consistent with that of French, their first language (L1). The study adds to the literature that shows an interaction between developmental sequences and L1 influence and also suggests that explicit instruction, including contrastive metalinguistic information, may be needed to help students move beyond apparently stable interlanguage patterns. (Verlag).
Journal Article
Students' approaches to vocabulary learning and their relationship to success
Student's approaches to vocabulary learning were surveyed in two distinct learning environments: one where English was studied as a second language (ESL), and another where it was a foreign language (EFL). A questionnaire, adapted from Sanaoui's (1992) work, was administered to 47 ESL and 43 EFL students. They were asked to indicate, among other things, the amount of time they usually spent on vocabulary learning, the extent to which they engaged in independent language study, the type of vocabulary learning activities they did on a regular basis, the frequency and elaborateness of their note-taking and reviewing efforts, and the frequency and elaborateness with which they used dictionaries. Whereas students in the two settings exhibited significant differences in the use of some of the strategies, other parts of their strategic behaviour were strikingly similar. Cluster analysis, a technique used for finding relatively homogeneous subgroups in a population, identified 8 different profiles of student approaches to lexical learning. Some clusters exhibited a remarkably \"flat\" profile in that they used either all or none of the strategies. The majority of learners, however, fell into the more saw-toothed profile clusters, exhibiting clear preferences for certain types of strategic behaviour. Analyses were also conducted to determine a possible relationship between strategy use and achievement level. Students' performance on two tests, a Yes/No test assessing knowledge of academic vocabulary and a cloze test assessing overall English proficiency, were compared for the clusters. More frequent and elaborate strategy use was associated with higher levels of achievement, whereas lack of self-reported effort on the students' part was linked to poor performance. Results also suggested that time and learner independence were the two measures most closely related to success in vocabulary learning and higher overall English proficiency. (Verlag).
Journal Article
Time and the Distribution of Time in L2 Instruction
In the French primary schools of Quebec, increased popularity in experimental programs that provide young Francophone learners with intensive ESL instruction has been accompanied by increased variation in the way the instructional time is distributed. In a massed program, students complete the regular curriculum in French in 5 months and spend the remaining months learning English. In a distributed program, the intensive ESL instruction is spread across the full 10 months of the school year. Within the cognitive psychology and general education literature, there is substantial evidence in favour of distributed over massed practice. There has been less research in the language program evaluation literature contrasting the learning outcomes of students receiving similar amounts of L2 exposure in different distributions, but the findings suggest an advantage for massed learning. The present study compared the learning outcomes in two versions of the massed program and one version of the distributed program of students of the same age and L1, with similar amounts of prior exposure to English. Pretest and posttest measures from 700 students revealed superior outcomes for the massed learning conditions. The interpretation of the findings takes into account selection criteria, overall instructional time, and instructional practices in the different ESL programs.
Journal Article
Instruction and the Development of Questions in L2 Classrooms
This paper is a report on a quasi-experimental study designed to investigate contributions of form-focused instruction and corrective feedback to the development of interrogative constructions in the oral performance of English-as-a-second-language (ESL) learners. The subjects were young francophone learners of English (age 10–12) receiving intensive ESL instruction. Their accuracy and developmental progress in the use of interrogative structures was measured prior to a 2-week period of instructional treatment. Immediate and delayed posttests were administered after the instruction. The language produced by the instructors while teaching interrogative structures was examined in relation to the learners' oral performance. Similar analyses were carried out with a comparison group. The results support the hypothesis that form-focused instruction and corrective feedback provided within the context of communicative interaction can contribute positively to second language development in both the short and long term.
Journal Article