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The essential variables used to measure radiological pollution and related human health concerns include radionuclides’ distribution and transfer factors (TFs) in plants. The TF is the radionuclide’s specific activity (Bq kg −1 ) ratio in the plant to its dirt equivalent (in dry weight). This research aimed to determine the radionuclides’ soil-to-plant TF, to evaluate natural radionuclides’ transfer level from soil to a selected cultivated crop (wheat) in the Shaqlawa district of Erbil Province, Iraq. The study randomly collected soil and cultivated plant samples from various locations. The collected samples were analyzed using HPGe gamma spectroscopy. The 226 Ra, 232 Th, and 40 K radionuclides, the average TFs from soil to plant root were 0.032, 0.033, and 0.405, respectively. TF values indicate that approximately 3.2%, 3.3%, and 40.5% of 226 Ra, 232 Th, and 40 K, respectively, were transferred from the soil to the wheat, following the order of 40 K (0.40) > 232 Th (0.033) and 226 Ra (0.032). All TFs were below the global standard of unity. A positive Pearson correlation was found among the three radionuclides in soil and plant samples. The three radionuclides were detected in soil and wheat samples, and the positive correlation among them suggested they originated from a common source in each environmental matrix. The results confirmed that the TF values from soil to wheat are safe for agricultural lands in the Shaklawa district, with no immediate radiological health implications.

The concentration levels of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K were investigated in the soil samples of the study area using a γ-ray spectroscopy system based on a high-purity germanium detector. The study determined that the average levels of Ra, Th, and K ranged from 7.2 ± 0.4 to 34.2 ± 3.8 Bq kg⁻¹, 4.7 ± 0.2 to 30.2 ± 4.1, and 104 ± 31 to 442 ± 53 Bq kg , with average values of 23.5 ± 2.5, 17.6 ± 2.1, and 264 ± 33 Bq kg , respectively. The average activity concentrations of Ra, Th, and K indicate a slight decrease compared to the worldwide average. The radiological risk factors corresponded to average values of 32.48 nGy h , 62.08 nGy h , 0.34 mSv y , 0.14 × 10 , 146.22 µR h , and 228.98 µSv y for the external and internal absorbed dose, total annual effective dose equivalent, ELCR, exposure rate, and annual gonadal equivalent dose, correspondingly. The average values of the measured hazards indices were 67.11 Bq kg , 0.19, 0.25, 0.51, and 0.12 for the radium equivalent activity, external and internal indices, representative level, and alpha indices, respectively. Several of these results are greater than the worldwide average, but the average of these values remains within the internationally permissible range. The statistical analysis of our results involved the computation of various measures in order to analyze and verify the statistical correlations.

The dynamic of integer-valued autoregressive model in random environment is governed by the realization { z n } n = 1 ∞ of a Markov chain referred to as the random environment process. At given moment n ∈ ℕ, the realization zn defines the environment conditions and determines all model parameters at that moment. In most cases, the K-means clustering technique has been used to estimate { z n } n = 1 ∞ , which is a necessary step in models application. However, the application of the K-means technique is not always the optimal solution, as it disregards certain information and may yield suboptimal results in some scenarios. To enhance clustering performance for data sequences corresponding to generalized random environment integer-valued autoregressive time series of higher order, the so-called RENES clustering method was developed. Despite its advantages, RENES also has some drawbacks and is highly complex to implement. To address these challenges, we propose a modification of the RENES method based on the Mahalanobis distance, designed to simplify the algorithm and improve its practical applicability while preserving clustering accuracy. The effectiveness of this modification was evaluated using the same simulations and real-life data where the RENES method had previously demonstrated its validity, and notable improvements were observed.

This research evaluates the potential radiological health risks caused by natural radionuclides in both imported and locally manufactured baby food brands consumed in the Iraqi Kurdistan region, utilizing statistical analysis and Monte Carlo-based methods. Activity concentrations of ²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K were measured in various baby food samples using a NaI(Tl) based gamma spectrometry with a CASSAY software for spectral analysis. The results shows that ²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K have mean activity concentrations of 13.2 ± 4.23, 10.6 ± 3.38, and 217.0 ± 6.94 Bq kg − 1 , respectively. The estimated annual effective dose from the three radionuclides for infants in age groups < 1 y and 1–2 y surpassed the internationally suggested limit of 1 mSv y − 1 , indicating a potential radiological health concern. The mean values of ELCR evaluated by deterministic calculations were 1.05 × 10 − 2 and 4.83 × 10 − 3 for infants aged < 1 y and 1–2 y, respectively. Monte Carlo simulations provided probabilistic risk estimates, which revealed that the ELCR surpassed the acceptable threshold of 1 × 10⁻⁴, suggesting a non-negligible carcinogenic risk associated with long-term consumption of the baby food brands. The results of this study emphasize the importance of stringent quality control measures, enhanced regulatory oversight and public awareness to mitigate potential health effects. Routine monitoring and additional research on dietary exposure routes are advised to guarantee the safety of infant food products in the region. The study calls for more research into dietary exposure pathways and regular monitoring to ensure the safety of infant food products in the region. Graphical abstract