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Heart failure (HF) is a progressive, multifaceted condition characterized by complex pathophysiological mechanisms, including chronic inflammation, which contributes significantly to disease onset and progression. Despite advancements in pharmacological therapies, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and β-blockers, HF remains associated with high morbidity and mortality. Inflammatory cytokines have emerged as potential biomarkers for HF, offering insights into disease mechanisms, risk stratification, and therapeutic responses. However, their clinical utility is hindered by analytical variability, pre-analytical challenges, and limited reproducibility across studies.This review explores the role of inflammatory cytokines in HF, evaluating their pathogenetic significance, analytical performance, and prognostic value. Biomarkers such as TNFα, IL-6, sTNFR1, and gp130 are assessed for their ability to enhance diagnostic precision and predict adverse outcomes. Furthermore, we examine the limitations of current cytokine assays, including sample stability, diurnal variation, and lack of standardization, which affect their transition into clinical practice. While natriuretic peptides and cardiac troponins remain the gold standard for HF biomarkers, multimarker approaches incorporating inflammatory cytokines may provide a more comprehensive understanding of HF pathophysiology.The findings underscore the need for robust, standardized methodologies and novel biomarkers beyond established pathways. These efforts will enhance HF management by improving risk stratification, guiding personalized treatment strategies, and advancing our understanding of inflammatory processes in HF progression.

The emergence of modern technology and online selling in the early 1990s led to a significant shift in business practices, as sellers and buyers no longer needed to follow the traditional contracting process. Indeed, the facilitation of online contracts, sales and purchases over the Internet, such as business-to-consumer contracts (B2C), is one of the most significant technological developments of the Internet age. Despite the benefits of online shopping and its increasing popularity among consumers in recent years, online retailing is not without its problems, and the negative consequences can be severe.Consumers are affected by several factors when they purchase a product or service online. In short, compared to offline shopping, greater risk and less trust are expected in an online environment. This has led some global organisations to address the need for supranational consumer protection and alleviate risks to online consumers worldwide. However, such initiatives may not have the desired impact on developing countries, as long as these guidelines are not adopted in their national legislation.The first objective of this study is to investigate the laws regulating online consumer protection in the KSA and to assess whether they have achieved their purposes. A secondary objective is to determine whether or not there is the need for further reform in the legislation of online consumer protection, and if such reform is indicated, how it might be achieved in a way that reflects the needs of a state in the modern world, yet remains consistent with Islamic law. To that aim, the thesis will consider adopting Sharia law's features and take the English consumer protection model as an inspiration to suit the Saudi legal environment to regulate online transactions. Therefore, the best practices and legal principles that come to light from this analysis will then be outlined to fulfil this research's main aim, identifying opportunities for the improvement of consumer protection in Saudi Arabia.

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global public health challenge, resulting in increased healthcare costs, higher mortality rates, and more difficult-to-treat infections. Improper use of antibiotics, including self-medication and overprescription, contributes significantly to AMR. This study aims to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of the population regarding antibiotic use and resistance,Methods: This study targeting the general population . A 25-item questionnaire was administered online, capturing antibiotic usage patterns, reasons for usage, and knowledge of antibiotic effectiveness and risks. The study employed stratified sampling to ensure demographic and regional representation, with a sample size of 700 respondents. The survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and multivariate ordinal logistic regression to identify predictors of antibiotic knowledge.Results: Of the 1014 respondents, 76.8% reported using antibiotics in the past year, with 78.6% using them based on a doctor's prescription. The average Antibiotic Knowledge Score (AKS) was 2.6 out of 4, with 32.5% of participants answering all knowledge questions correctly. Factors associated with higher antibiotic knowledge included being female, having a higher level of education, and being open to changing views on antibiotic use after receiving new information. Only 31.3% of participants had received advice on rational antibiotic use in 2022, with half of them reporting a change in their perspective.Conclusion: This study provides valuable baseline data on public knowledge and behaviors related to antibiotic use Findings suggest that education, gender, and willingness to learn play significant roles in improving antibiotic knowledge. Future public health interventions should focus on targeted educational campaigns to raise awareness about the responsible use of antibiotics and combat antimicrobial resistance, particularly in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The role of pharmacists in enhancing patient outcomes through over-the-counter (OTC) drug selection and counseling is increasingly recognized as essential in contemporary healthcare. As accessible healthcare providers, pharmacists possess the expertise necessary to guide patients in the appropriate use of OTC medications, which are widely utilized for self-management of common health conditions. This article explores the critical contributions of pharmacists in ensuring the safe and effective use of OTC products, emphasizing their role in patient education, individualized counseling, and the prevention of medication-related issues. OTC medications serve as a first line of defense against various ailments, allowing patients to address minor health concerns without the need for a prescription. However, the convenience of OTC availability can lead to misuse or inappropriate selection, potentially resulting in adverse health outcomes. Pharmacists are uniquely positioned to mitigate these risks by providing tailored recommendations based on a thorough assessment of individual patient needs, medical histories, and current medication regimens. Through effective counseling, pharmacists empower patients with knowledge about proper dosing, potential side effects, and drug interactions, thereby enhancing their confidence in self-care. Additionally, pharmacists play a vital role in addressing the needs of special populations, including children, the elderly, and pregnant women, who may face unique challenges when selecting OTC products. By leveraging their expertise and utilizing technology, such as telepharmacy and electronic health records, pharmacists can further enhance patient engagement and ensure comprehensive care. In conclusion, the involvement of pharmacists in OTC drug selection and counseling is crucial for optimizing health outcomes. Their ability to educate and guide patients fosters safer medication practices and promotes effective self-management. As the healthcare landscape continues to evolve, the significance of pharmacists in supporting patient health through responsible OTC medication use will undoubtedly grow, highlighting the need for ongoing collaboration among healthcare professionals.