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Premise of the Study: Although many species in the orchid genus Coelogyne are horticulturally popular, hardly anything is known about their pollination. Pollinators of three species were observed in the field in Nepal. This information is urgently needed because many orchid species in Nepal are endangered. Whether the exudates produced by extrafloral nectaries played a role in protection against herbivory was also investigated. Methods: Pollinators of C. flaccida, C. nitida, and Otochilus albus were filmed, captured, and identified. Ant surveys and exclusion experiments were carried out. To investigate whether pollinators are needed for fruit set, plants were wrapped in mesh wire bags. Inflorescence stems were examined with microscopy. Fehling's reagent was used to detect sugars in extrafloral exudates. Key Results: Coelogyne flaccida and C. nitida need pollinators to set fruit and are pollinated by wild bees identified as Apis cerana. Otochilus albus was found to be pollinated by Bombus kashmirensis. Extrafloral nectar was found to be exuded by nectary-modified stomata and contained high amounts of sugars. Different species of ants were observed collecting these exudates. A significant difference was found in damage inflicted by flower and leaf-eating beetles between C. nitida plants living in trees with ant nests and those in ant-free trees. Conclusions: Floral syndromes include scented and colored trap flowers without reward to their pollinators. All orchids investigated exude extrafloral nectar by nectary-modified stomata. This nectar was found to flow from the phloem to the stomata through intercellular spaces in the outer parenchymatous layer of the inflorescence.

Community seed banks are farmer-managed organizations that conserve and sustainably manage local crop and tree diversity. They are found in many countries of the Global South and increasingly in the Global North. Altogether, they maintain hundreds of crop and tree species and thousands of mostly local varieties and distribute tons of quality seed per year. Through their activities, they share and safeguard the world’s agrobiodiversity, contribute to seed security, and allow farming households in local communities to produce and consume more affordable, secure, diverse, and nutritious foods. However, community seed banks are knowledge-, resource-, and time-intensive organizations that operate through their members’ voluntary contributions. The purpose of this article is to analyze the sustainability challenge of community seed banks and identify strategies that address it. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used, complemented by secondary data analysis of research reports and other deliverables, resulting in five case study countries in Africa and Asia. Five promising sustainability strategies can support viable community seed bank development: value addition; nature-positive agriculture; enabling environment and national genebank partnership; networking and digitalization; and modern, low-cost seed quality technologies. Sustainable community seed banks can make important contributions to national seed sector development but they need stronger policy and legal support to maintain their sustainability.

Background Wild orchids are illegally harvested and traded in Nepal for use in local traditional medicine, horticulture, and international trade. This study aims to: 1) identify the diversity of species of wild orchids in trade in Nepal; 2) study the chain of commercialization from collector to client and/or export; 3) map traditional knowledge and medicinal use of orchids; and 4) integrate the collected data to propose a more sustainable approach to orchid conservation in Nepal. Methods Trade, species diversity, and traditional use of wild-harvested orchids were documented during field surveys of markets and through interviews. Trade volumes and approximate income were estimated based on surveys and current market prices. Orchid material samples were identified to species level using a combination of morphology and DNA barcoding. Results Orchid trade is a long tradition, and illegal export to China, India and Hong Kong is rife. Estimates show that 9.4 tons of wild orchids were illegally traded from the study sites during 2008/2009. A total of 60 species of wild orchids were reported to be used in traditional medicinal practices to cure at least 38 different ailments, including energizers, aphrodisiacs and treatments of burnt skin, fractured or dislocated bones, headaches, fever and wounds. DNA barcoding successfully identified orchid material to species level that remained sterile after culturing. Conclusions Collection of wild orchids was found to be widespread in Nepal, but illegal trade is threatening many species in the wild. Establishment of small-scale sustainable orchid breeding enterprises could be a valuable alternative for the production of medicinal orchids for local communities. Critically endangered species should be placed on CITES Appendix I to provide extra protection to those species. DNA barcoding is an effective method for species identification and monitoring of illegal cross-border trade.

The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are issues that have been high on the policy agenda since the first Earth Summit in Rio in 1992. As part of efforts to implement in situ conservation, a methodology referred to as community biodiversity management (CBM) has been developed by those engaged in this arena. CBM contributes to the empowerment of farming communities to manage their biological resources and make informed decisions on the conservation and use of agrobiodiversity. This book is the first to set out a clear overview of CBM as a methodology for meeting socio-environmental changes. CBM is shown to be a key strategy that promotes community resilience, and contributes to the conservation of plant genetic resources. The authors present the underlying concepts and theories of CBM as well as its methodology and practices, and introduce case studies primarily from Brazil, Ethiopia, France, India, and Nepal. Contributors include farmers, leaders of farmers' organizations, professionals from conservation and development organizations, students and scientists. The book offers inspiration to all those involved in the conservation and use of agrobiodiversity within livelihood development and presents ideas for the implementation of farmers' rights. The wide collection of experiences illustrates the efforts made by communities throughout the world to cope with change while using diversity and engaging in learning processes. It links these grassroots efforts with debates in policy arenas as a means to respond to the unpredictable changes, such as climate change, that communities face in sustaining their livelihoods.

Most countries in the world have developed their own national plant genetic resource programmes (NPGRPs). Even though they usually intend to take a complementary approach to conservation, their emphasis is and remains on ex situ conservation. In the introduction to this book Thijssen et al. (Chapter 1.1) indicate that the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992a) and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA, 2001) identified in situ conservation through on-farm management as one of the strategies. NPGRPs, however, lag behind in implementing this strategy (FAO, 2010). With this book, we have compiled a vast range of experiences on CBM and its practices, as implemented by conservation and development organizations or sometimes non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that are not necessarily associated with their NPGRP. De Boef and Thijssen (Chapter 1.8), as well as a number of other authors, argue that the CBM methodology is instrumental for the implementation of on-farm management. NGOs and their development professionals are key drivers for promoting the CBM methodology. Consequently, on-farm management is implemented by organizations that are not necessarily recognized by, or associated with, the NPGRP. As such, CBM and its practices are not usually part of what constitutes the national framework governing the management of plant genetic resources (PGR), or the normal professionalism associated with those responsible for the conservation in NPGRPs.

Ex situ and in situ conservation is distinguished as separate conservation strategies by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Agrobiodiversity is increasingly approached by conservation and development organizations in the context of sustainable livelihood development, rather than as a means to solely achieve conservation. Community bio-diversity management (CBM) is a methodology whereby conservation and development organizations, through a participatory process, help to build community-based organizations and strengthen their capabilities to achieve the conservation and sustainable use of agro-bioversity. CBM evolved only gradually from practice to a methodology. CBM includes many practices that are used both by community-based organizations (CBOs) concerned with conservation and use, and by external stakeholders that aim to strengthen communities in conservation and livelihood development. Rural poetry and drama are innovative practices of creating awareness on the value of biodiversity, and of documenting traditional knowledge and information.

Millions of farmers depend on the use of local crops and varieties for their food and livelihood. These resources constitute a reservoir of alternative traits and characteristics, which allow us to diversify crops, foods and farming methods and provide material for targeted plant breeding. Still, many countries lag behind in providing support to farming communities for the maintenance and use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA). A global survey was conducted among a wide range of stakeholders to gain insights into the state of on-farm management (OFM) as a strategy for enhancing the maintenance and sustainable use of PGRFA. The survey showed that a wide range of stakeholders provide de facto support to OFM and that the practices they consider critical are focused on building capabilities in local communities. This supports the fact that the management of crop diversity on farm can be promoted in a variety of ways, depending on the specific context, and that local solutions are needed to successfully support OFM. Partnerships and networks should be considered as one of the critical means to promote OFM, as they involve a diversity of stakeholders working towards common goals. The survey further showed that many respondents currently contribute to existing networks relevant to OFM, but that these networks are mainly nationally or internationally oriented and might therefore exclude crucial local stakeholders, such as community-based organizations. Therefore, mechanisms should be put in place to strengthen the collaboration between stakeholders and networks, especially at the local level.

A global survey was conducted among a wide range of stakeholders to gain insight into the state of on-farm management (OFM) as a strategy for enhancing the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA). The results show that OFM is not considered a priority in national PGRFA programmes (NPGRPs), and that OFM practitioners and their organizations are not always aware of, or involved in, NPGRPs. The survey also highlighted the lack of awareness, understanding and collaboration between OFM practitioners and the managers and policy-makers associated with NPGRPs. The outcome of the analysis supports a hypothesis that OFM is, to a large extent, supported by stakeholders who are not directly engaged in the conservation and use of PGRFA, and therefore not associated with NPGRPs. This should be taken into consideration when seeking to improve the performance and impact of national programmes, and their commitment to safeguard PGRFA and contribute to food security, poverty alleviation and sustainable agriculture.

Although small-scale farmers manage their valuable plant genetic resources (PGR), they have yet to benefit from successes in conservation and crop improvement (Bellon, 2006). The empowerment of farmers and communities seems to be a precondition for halting the rapid disappearance of local crops and varieties from farmers' fields (Shrestha et al., 2008). Access to financial resources is one way of contributing to the economic empowerment of farmers, within the larger framework of community biodiversity management (CBM). The knowledge and skills (human capital) that can be acquired through a CBM process enhance the capacities of farming communities to improve their well-being and livelihoods. As described by Shrestha et al. (Chapter 1.3), CBM is composed of a number of components and practices that can be tailored to particular agrobiodiversity contexts. In the current chapter, we focus on the CBM component that is described as the 'establishment of a CBM fund'. This component aims to sustain collective action in conservation and facilitates the payment of conservation services in the interest of the collective, and of society as a whole (Sthapit et al., 2008b).

Community biodiversity management (CBM) is a process or methodology made up of a set of practices. It is the strength of the sequence and combination of practices in which community members engage themselves, either autonomously or supported by conservation and development organizations, that results in the collective and conscious management of agrobiodiversity. Only when this situation emerges can the in situ conservation or on-farm management of agrobiodiversity be achieved (De Boef and Thijssen, Chapter 1.8). Part II focuses on sharing a range of practices that are commonly used by different types of organizations, complementing the series of more introductory, conceptual descriptions of CBM processes presented in Part I.