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Dinoflagellates are an abundant and diverse group of protists that inhabit aquatic environments worldwide. They are characterized by numerous unique cellular and molecular traits, and have adapted to an unusually broad range of life strategies, including phototrophy, heterotrophy, parasitism, and all combinations of these. For most microbial groups, transitions from marine to freshwater environments are relatively rare, as changes in salinity are thought to lead to significant osmotic challenges that are difficult for the cell to overcome. Recent work has shown that dinoflagellates have overcome these challenges relatively often in evolutionary time, but because this is mostly based on single gene trees with low overall support, many of the relationships between freshwater and marine groups remain unresolved. Normally, phylogenomics could clarify such conclusions, but despite the recent surge in data, virtually no freshwater dinoflagellates have been characterized at the genome-wide level. Here, we generated 30 transcriptomes from cultures and single cells collected from freshwater environments to infer a robustly supported phylogenomic tree from 217 conserved genes, resolving at least seven transitions to freshwater in dinoflagellates. Mapping the distribution of ASVs from freshwater environmental samples onto this tree confirms these groups and identifies additional lineages where freshwater dinoflagellates likely remain unsampled. We also sampled two species of Durinskia, a genus of “dinotoms” with both marine and freshwater lineages containing Nitzschia-derived tertiary plastids. Ribosomal RNA phylogenies show that the host cells are closely related, but their endosymbionts are likely descended from two distantly-related freshwater Nitzschia species that were acquired in parallel and relatively recently.

Despite calls from various global organizations for increased attention to global surgery, guidance on developing effective curricula is lacking. In this scoping review, we aimed to outline the necessary learning objectives and competencies for establishing sustainable, equitable, and noncolonialist academic global surgery programs. This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews. We used key terms to search 5 electronic databases and conducted a comprehensive grey literature search to identify universities, medical programs, and organizations offering academic global surgery programs. We categorized curricular objectives extracted from these sources into the 11 domains of global health defined by the Consortium of Universities on Global Health. We employed thematic analysis to further categorize these objectives into unique themes within each domain. We found a total of 43 studies and 61 programs through database and grey literature searches, respectively. These sources yielded 333 unique curricular objectives, which we analyzed thematically, revealing 41 unique themes spanning various neglected areas in global surgery, such as Indigenous health, environments, chronic diseases, technology, and underserved populations like refugees, urban populations of low socioeconomic status, and racial and ethnic minority groups. This review outlines essential skills for effective engagement in modern global surgical care, emphasizing the emergence of nontraditional themes like bidirectional partnerships, sustainability, and self-governance over mission-based approaches. Integrating these forward-looking themes into global surgery curricula is vital for improving global surgical care standards and fostering a skilled, globally aware workforce.