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Furthermore, BLV can be horizontally transmitted through the transfer of infected cells by bites of insects, such as stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans) ( Buxton and others 1985 ). [...]in addition to the prevention of iatrogenic and contact transmissions, vector control is important for preventing the spread of BLV infection. In Farm A, where many blood-feeding stable flies were observed, vector control performed using a combination of insect repellents was very efficient as no new cases of BLV infection were observed after the treatment. Because there are many transmission risk factors, effective control measures depend on the identified risk factors. [...]recent studies in our laboratory have revealed that positive conversion in dairy and beef cattle herds remains high (data not shown). Because BLV prevalence was reported to be 35.2% in Japan ( Murakami and others 2013 ), risk factors must be determined and appropriate control measures must be taken to prevent the spread of BLV infection. [...]studies are now being conducted to evaluate risk factors for BLV transmission in different situations.

The hypothesis that exchange of intracapsular divalent cations with Na+ in seawater increases the internal osmotic pressure during discharge of nematocysts of marine cnidarians was tested by examining effects of externally applied cations on the volume and elemental composition of nematocysts isolated from acontia of the sea anemone Calliactis polypus. The volume of isolated nematocysts increased with increasing concentrations of cations if the cation was monovalent but appeared to decrease if the cation was divalent. Ca2+ reduced the internal osmotic pressure of the nematocysts more efficiently than Mg2+. X-ray microanalysis of nematocysts incubated in 1 M solutions of various salts showed that Ca2+ in isolated nematocysts was only partially replaced, if at all, by externally applied Na+ and Mg2+ while most Mg2+ was replaced by Na+ and Ca2+. The present results suggest that exchange of intracapsular divalent cations with external monovalent cations increases the internal osmotic pressure, and that selective binding of Ca2+ to polyanions in the capsule decreases it. Whether the increase in the internal osmotic pressure caused by the cation exchange is large enough to trigger discharge remains to be investigated.