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Melatonin, a natural agent, has multiple functions in animals as well as in plants. However, its possible roles in plants under abiotic stress are not clear. Nowadays, soil salinity is a major threat to global agriculture because a high soil salt content causes multiple stresses (hyperosmotic, ionic, and oxidative). Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore: (1) the involvement of melatonin in biosynthesis of photosynthetic pigments and in regulation of photosynthetic enzymes, such as carbonic anhydrase (CA) and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco); (2) the role of melatonin in osmoregulation by proline and carbohydrate metabolism; and (3) the function of melatonin in the antioxidant defense system under salinity. Outcomes of the study reveal that under non-saline conditions, application of melatonin (20 and 50 µM) improved plant growth, viz. shoot length, root length, shoot fresh weight (FW), root FW, shoot dry weight (DW), root DW and leaf area and physio-biochemical parameters [chlorophyll (Chl) a and b, proline (Pro) and total soluble carbohydrates (TSC) content, and increased the activity of CA and Rubisco]. However, tomato seedlings treated with NaCl exhibited enhanced Chl degradation, electrolyte leakage (EL), malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS; superoxide and hydrogen peroxide). ROS were detected in leaf and root. Interestingly, application of melatonin improved plant growth and reduced EL, MDA and ROS levels through upregulation of photosynthesis enzymes (CA, Rubisco), antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione reductase and ascorbate reductase) and levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants [ascorbate (ASC) and reduced glutathione (GSH)], as well as by affecting the ASC—GSH cycle. Additionally, exogenous melatonin also improved osmoregulation by increasing the content of TSC, Pro and Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase activity. These results suggest that melatonin has beneficial effects on tomato seedlings growth under both stress and non-stress conditions. Melatonin’s role in tolerance to salt stress may be associated with the regulation of enzymes involved in photosynthesis, the antioxidant system, metabolism of proline and carbohydrate, and the ASC—GSH cycle. Also, melatonin could be responsible for maintaining the high ratios of GSH/GSSG and ASC/DHA.

High salinity mitigates crop productivity and quality. Plant growth-promoting soil rhizobacteria (PGPR) improve plant growth and abiotic stress tolerance via mediating various physiological and molecular mechanisms. This study investigated the effects of the PGPR strain Serratia liquefaciens KM4 on the growth and physiological and molecular responsiveness of maize (Zea mays L.) plants under salinity stress (0, 80, and 160 mM NaCl). High salinity significantly reduced plant growth and biomass production, nutrient uptake, leaf relative water content, pigment content, leaf gas exchange attributes, and total flavonoid and phenolic contents in maize. However, osmolyte content (e.g., soluble proteins, proline, and free amino acids), oxidative stress markers, and enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants levels were increased in maize under high salinity. On the other hand, Serratia liquefaciens KM4 inoculation significantly reduced oxidative stress markers, but increased the maize growth and biomass production along with better leaf gas exchange, osmoregulation, antioxidant defense systems, and nutrient uptake under salt stress. Moreover, it was found that all these improvements were accompanied with the upregulation of stress-related genes (APX, CAT, SOD, RBCS, RBCL, H+-PPase, HKT1, and NHX1), and downregulation of the key gene in ABA biosynthesis (NCED). Taken together, the results demonstrate the beneficial role of Serratia liquefaciens KM4 in improving plant growth and salt stress tolerance in maize by regulating ion homeostasis, redox potential, leaf gas exchange, and stress-related genes expression.

Background Nitrogen (N) availability is crucial in regulating plants’ abiotic stress resistance, particularly at the seedling stage. Nevertheless, plant responses to N under salinity conditions may vary depending on the soil’s NH 4 + to NO 3 − ratio. Methods In this study, we investigated the effects of different NH 4 + :NO 3 − ratios (100/0, 0/100, 25/75, 50/50, and 75/25) on the growth and physio-biochemical responses of soybean seedlings grown under controlled and saline stress conditions (0-, 50-, and 100-mM L − 1 NaCl and Na 2 SO 4 , at a 1:1 molar ratio). Results We observed that shoot length, root length, and leaf-stem-root dry weight decreased significantly with increased saline stress levels compared to control. Moreover, there was a significant accumulation of Na + , Cl − , hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), and malondialdehyde (MDA) but impaired ascorbate-glutathione pools (AsA-GSH). They also displayed lower photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b), K + ion, K + /Na + ratio, and weakened O 2 •− -H 2 O 2 -scavenging enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, glutathione reductase under both saline stress levels, while reduced ascorbate peroxidase, and dehydroascorbate reductase under 100-mM stress, demonstrating their sensitivity to a saline environment. Moreover, the concentrations of proline, glycine betaine, total phenolic, flavonoids, and abscisic acid increased under both stresses compared to the control. They also exhibited lower indole acetic acid, gibberellic acid, cytokinins, and zeatine riboside, which may account for their reduced biomass. However, NH 4 + :NO 3 − ratios caused a differential response to alleviate saline stress toxicity. Soybean seedlings supplemented with optimal ratios of NH 4 + :NO 3 − (T3 = 25:75 and T = 4 50:50) displayed lower Na + and Cl − and ABA but improved K + and K + /Na + , pigments, growth hormones, and biomass compared to higher NH 4 + :NO 3 − ratios. They also exhibited higher O 2 •− -H 2 O 2 -scavenging enzymes and optimized H 2 O 2 , MDA, and AsA-GSH pools status in favor of the higher biomass of seedlings. Conclusions In summary, the NH 4 +  and NO 3 − ratios followed the order of 50:50 > 25:75 > 0:100 > 75:25 > 100:0 for regulating the morpho-physio-biochemical responses in seedlings under SS conditions. Accordingly, we suggest that applying optimal ratios of NH 4 + and NO 3 − (25/75 and 50:50) can improve the resistance of soybean seedlings grown in saline conditions.

Background Three Amino acid Loop Extension (TALE) belongs to the homeobox group of genes that are important constituents of plant systems. The TALE gene family is instrumental not only in growth and development but also plays an essential role in regulating plant response to environmental adversaries. Results In the present study, we isolated 21 CsTALE genes from the cucumber ( Cucumis sativus L.) genome database. Bioinformatics tools were put in place to understand the structural and functional components of the CsTALE gene family. The evolutionary analysis dissected them into seven subclades (KNOX-I, KNOX-II, and BELL-I to BELL-V). The c is - acting elements in the promoter region of CsTALE genes disclosed that they are key regulators of hormonal and stress-related processes. Additionally, the STRING database advocated the concerting role of CsTALE proteins with other key transcription factors potent in plant developmental biology. The CsmiR319 and CsmiR167a-3p targeting the CsTALE15 and CsTALE16 , respectively, further assert the importance of the CsTALE gene family posttranscriptional-related processes. Tissue-specific gene expression unfolded the fundamental involvement of CsTALE genes as they were expressed throughout the developmental stages. Under waterlogging stress, the CsTALE17 expressed significantly higher values in WL, WL-NAA, and WL-ETH but not in WL-MeJA-treated samples. Conclusions The present study reveals the evolution and functions of the CsTALE gene family in cucumber. Our work will provide a platform that will help future researchers address the issue of waterlogging stress in the Yangtze River Delta.

The escalating presence of heavy metals (HMs) in the Panjkora River water and their impact on fish pose a significant challenge to both the ecological community and human health. Consequently, a study was conducted with the primary aim of elucidating their influence on human health-related issues. To address this, the concentrations of heavy metals, including arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn), in both water and the fish species Crossocheilus diplocheilus were investigated across various locations within the study area. The quantification of HMs concentration was carried out utilizing an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The highest concentration in water was found as 0.060 mg/L for Pb and lowest for Fe, whereas the highest concentration in fish was 2.028 mg/kg for Pb and lowest for As. Human health risk associated with fish eating was evaluated by using health risk indices (HRI) for non-carcinogenic health risks and targeted cancer risk (TR) for carcinogenic health risks. The values of the health risk index (HRI) were found greater than 1 except Fe (0.0792), Zn (0.782), and Mn (0.541). The highest mean HRI > 1 was recorded for As (62.99), Cd (26.85), and Pb (10.56). This implies that fish consumption from river Panjkora is not safe up to some extent. Similarly, the TR value for As, Cd, and Pb was found 2.8 × 10 - 2 , 1.6 × 10 - 2 , 2.8 × 10 - 3 which showed cancer risk. There is a detected risk to human health associated with the consumption of fish from the Panjkora River. The government must implement adaptive measures to address this significant issue of water pollution in the study area. Additionally, there is a need for further extensive and prolonged research studies in this context.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) represents one of the most important cereals cultivated worldwide. Investigating genetic variability and structure of barley is important for enhancing the crop productivity. This study aimed to investigate the diversity and structure of 40 barley genotypes originated from three European countries (France, the Netherlands, Poland) using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). It also aimed to study 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) effect on salinity tolerance of six barley genotypes. The expected heterozygosity (He) diverged from 0.126 to 0.501, with a mean of 0.348. Polymorphic information content (PIC) diverged from 0.103 to 0.482 across barley genotypes, with a mean of 0.316, indicating that barley genotypes are rich in a considerable level of genetic diversity. The 40 barley genotypes were further studied based on their geographical origin (Western Europe and Eastern Europe). The Eastern European region (Poland) has a higher barley variability than the Western European region (France and the Netherlands). Nei’s distance-based cluster tree divided the 40 barley accessions into two major clusters; one cluster comprised all the varieties originated from the Eastern European region, while the other major cluster included all accessions originated from the Western European region. Structure analysis results were in a complete concordance with our cluster analysis results. Slaski 2, Damseaux and Urbanowicki genotypes have the highest diversity level, whereas Carmen, Bigo and Cambrinus genotypes have the lowest level. The response of these six varieties to NaCl stress was also investigated. Salt stress (100 mM NaCl) slightly decreased levels of chlorophyll, carotenoid and osmolytes (proteins, soluble sugars, phenolics and flavonoids) in the leaves of Slaski 2, Damseaux and Urbanowicki genotypes at non-significant level, as compared to control samples. However, pigment contents and osmolytes in leaves of Carmen, Bigo and Cambrinus genotypes were significantly decreased by salt stress. Antioxidant enzyme activities were significantly increased in Slaski 2 genotype, but non-significantly increased in Carmen by salt stress. Priming Slaski 2 and Carmen cultivars with ALA under salt stress significantly induced pigment contents, antioxidants enzymes activity and stress-responsive genes expression, relative to NaCl-stressed plants. In conclusion, this study suggested a correlation between variability percentage and degree of salinity resistance. ALA improved salt tolerance in barley.

Pathogenesis-related protein 1 (PR-1) is a critical component of plant defense mechanisms, exhibiting significant antifungal activity. This study focused on the PR-1 protein from Zea mays and five other plant species ( Triticum aestivum , Hordeum vulgare , Oryza sativa , Avena sativa , and Secale cereale ) to explore their physicochemical, structural, and functional characteristics. The PR-1 gene from Z. mays was isolated and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21-DE3 cells, enabling structural characterization. Recombinant expression in E. coli enabled structural characterization and functional studies of the PR-1 protein, laying a foundation for future experiments. Sequence analysis revealed high similarity (65–90%) among PR-1 proteins across species, although physicochemical properties varied based on plant origin. Structural analysis showed a conserved beta-barrel structure surrounded by alpha-helices in all PR-1 proteins. In addition to in silico and structural characterization, antifungal bioassays were performed using the purified recombinant PR-1 protein against Fusarium oxysporum , a major fungal phytopathogen. These assays demonstrated notable antifungal activity, supporting the predicted defense role of PR-1 and laying experimental groundwork for its potential use in developing fungi-resistant transgenic crops.

Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) is a staple food crop that plays a crucial role in global food security. A suitable planting pattern and optimum nitrogen (N) split management are efficient practices for improving wheat production. Therefore, an experiment was performed to explore the effect of N split management and sowing patterns on wheat at the Agronomy Research Farm, The University of Agriculture Peshawar, during rabi season 2020-21 and 2021-22. The treatments consisted of different nitrogen rates of 0, 80, 120, and 160 kg ha − 1 and planting patterns of W, M, broadcast and line sowing. The pooled analysis of both cropping seasons showed that application of 120 kg N ha − 1 increased spikelets spike − 1 , grains spike − 1 , 1000 grains weight, grain yield, grain N content, evapotranspiration and water use efficiency by 21.9, 16.7, 21.8, 70, 13, 19.9 and 40% as compared to control, respectively. In addition, W and M were observed the best management practices among all planting patterns. The M planting pattern enhanced chlorophyll a, b, carotenoids and evapotranspiration while W plating pattern improved yield components and yield of wheat as compared to broadcast planting patterns. The principal component analysis biplot showed a close association of M and W planting patterns with 120 kg N ha − 1 in most of the studied traits. Hence, it is concluded that split application of 120 kg N ha − 1 in W and M sowing patterns enhanced growth, biochemical traits and water use efficiency, reducing N fertilization from 160 to 120 kg ha − 1 while increasing grain yield of wheat. Hence, it is recommended that application of 120 kg N ha⁻¹ in combination with W and M planting patterns offer a sustainable approach to enhancing wheat production in the alkaline soil conditions of the Peshawar valley.

Metal contamination in water bodies globally poses risks to ecosystems and human health. In Pakistan, water sources are impacted by toxic metals and microbial pollutants, affecting Nile Tilapia , a widely consumed fish in Punjab. This study assessed heavy metal and microbiological contamination in Nile tilapia from the Ravi and Chenab Rivers and nearby farms (Head Muhammad Wala, Shorkot, and Rangpur). Heavy metals, including arsenic, chromium, cadmium, mercury and lead, were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, Arsenic ranged lowest from 0.15 mg/kg (scales) to highest 1.38 mg/kg (Liver), while Chromium was found to be lowest 73 mg/kg in (scales) and highest 321.83 mg/kg (Liver) in Riverine Fish, whereas in farms fish As ranged lowest from 0.05 mg/kg (flesh) to highest 0.92 mg/kg (gills),while Chromium was found to be lowest 92 mg/kg in (skin) and highest 166.67 mg/kg (Liver). Riverine fish showed elevated heavy metal levels as compared to farmed fish. Moreover, Ravi River fish also showed the highest microbial loads, including total plate counts of 15,335 cfu/g, Salmonella at 373.11 cfu/25 g, and E. coli at 76.55 cfu/g, while Chenab River fish had a significantly higher coliform count (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that farmed fish are less contaminated due to reduced exposure to industrial effluents, emphasizing the need for further research on other commonly consumed fish species in high-industrial regions.