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Lumpy skin disease (LSD), a current global concern, causes economic devastation in livestock industries, with cattle and water buffalo reported to have higher morbidity and lower mortality rates. LSD is caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), a member of the Poxviridae family. It is an enzootic, rapidly explorative and sometimes fatal infection, characterized by multiple raised nodules on the skin of infected animals. It was first reported in Zambia in 1929 and is considered endemic in Africa south of the Sahara desert. It has gradually spread beyond Africa into the Middle East, with periodic occurrences in Asian and East European countries. Recently, it has been spreading in most Asian countries including far East Asia and threatens incursion to LSD-free countries. Rapid and accurate diagnostic capabilities, virus identification, vaccine development, vector control, regional and international collaborations and effective biosecurity policies are important for the control, prevention, and eradication of LSD infections. This review critically evaluates the global burden of LSD, the chronological historical outbreaks of LSD, and future directions for collaborative global actions.

Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD) is an infectious disease caused by the Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVDV), a member of the genus . The disease remains endemic across Australian beef and dairy production systems, imposing a multi-million-dollar annual burden on animal health, welfare, and industry sustainability. BVDV can be transmitted both horizontally and vertically, with persistently infected (PI) animals serving as the primary source of infection. Rapid identification and subsequent culling of PI animals are fundamental requirements for any successful eradication program. Currently, Australia's decentralised, non-compulsory approach places the responsibility of biosecurity on individual producers, resulting in a fragmented national landscape. This review proposes that the strategic deployment of rapid, field-deployable point-of-care (POC) diagnostics serves as the transformative catalyst needed for a coordinated national eradication pathway. POC approaches utilising technologies such as lateral flow assays, nucleic acid amplification tests, and biosensors enable real-time, crush-side diagnosis and high-throughput surveillance, proving effective for early detection and control of infectious diseases. When integrated with robust biosecurity measures and optimised vaccination strategies, these POC advancements offer a scientifically sound and commercially viable pathway toward the systematic eradication of BVDV in the Australian cattle industry.

The bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infects a wide range of domestic and wild mammals. This review hypothesized that there might be cross-species transmission of BVDV. Therefore, the aim was to explore the BVDV-5′ UTR and N-pro sequence-based evidence to understand host plasticity among different animals. A total of 146 unique BVDV sequences retrieved from GenBank, originating from 12 distinct mammalian species that are submitted from 55 countries, were analyzed. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that all three BVDV species exhibited genetic relatedness infecting diverse animal species. BVDV-1 sequences obtained from cattle, buffalo, and pigs and BVDV-2 and HoBi-like pestivirus sequences from cattle, goats, and sheep showed a genetic resemblance. Surprisingly, cattle and buffalo in China, cattle and yak in Mongolia, cattle and wild boar in Serbia, cattle and deer in Mexico, cattle and alpacas in Canada, goats and pigs in the USA, and sheep and buffalo in Argentina were infected with BVDV-1 within the same county and strongly positioned in the same cluster, indicating potential spillover with host tropism. Moreover, BVDV sequences isolated from various neighboring countries clustered closely, suggesting potential cross-border transmission events. Based on genomic evidence, the BVDV transmission cycle could be depicted, where cattle act as a primary source of infection, while other domestic and wild animals maintain the infection ecology within their habitat due to virus tropism.

Clinical data on antimicrobial profiles are useful for dairy udder health treatment programmes and represents a component of antimicrobial stewardship. The study aimed to determine the bacterial aetiology of clinical mastitis in dairy herds in Western Australia and to evaluate their antibiotic resistance profiles. This retrospective study utilised clinical antimicrobial profile data from two referral diagnostic centres within the region of Western Australia. A total of 545 mastitic samples were submitted for antimicrobial culture and testing over a period of 10 years (2008–2018). Of these, 406 showed bacterial growth and 139 no bacterial growth was observed. The most common isolates were Streptococcus uberis (25.3%), Staphylococcus aureus (17.2%), and Escherichia coli (9.4%). No growth was identified in 25.5% of the mastitis milk samples. The antimicrobial profiles revealed high susceptibilities towards cefuroxime (95.7%), clavulox (89.4%), and oxytetracycline (89%), whilst showing high resistance towards novobiovin (70%). From this study, it is concluded that there was a decline in the resistance trends towards the isolates of both S. uberis and S. aureus over the 10-year period and contagious mastitis had a higher occurrence. There is a need to consider surveillance programmes that determine the patterns of on-farm antimicrobial usage and further characterise the pathogens based on the presence of resistance antimicrobial genes. Data on antimicrobial surveillance represent an important component of antimicrobial stewardship.

Bovine anaemia caused by Theileria orientalis group (BATOG) causes significant production and economic losses in Australia’s cattle industry. The pathogenic T. orientalis genotypes reported in Australian cattle are type 1 (Chitose) and type 2 (Ikeda). The present study aimed to determine the prevalence and distribution of T. orientalis genotypes in adult lactating cows in Western Australia (WA) dairy herds. A total of 100 whole blood samples from lactating cows from 10 farms were obtained and screened for T. orientalis using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Sanger sequencing was subsequently used to characterise T. orientalis genotypes isolated from positive samples. A total of thirteen cows (13%; 95% CI: 7.1–21.2%) were positive for T. orientalis, and six out of ten farms (60%; 95% CI: 26.2–87.8%) housed at least one T. orientalis-positive cow. The distribution of T. orientalis was found to be wide and dense in the South west region of WA and the southern coast of WA. The predominant T. orientalis genotype identified was Ikeda (n = 11, 11%; 95% CI: 5.6–18.8%), while the Buffeli genotype was identified in WA for the first time, albeit at a low prevalence (n = 1, 1%; 95% CI: 0.0–5.4%). This study has provided useful epidemiological evidence on the prevalence and distribution of T. orientalis in adult lactating dairy cows in WA dairy farms, and on the importance of conducting widespread surveillance programs for the understanding of BATOG in WA.

Non-typeable (NT) Staphylococcus aureus strains are associated with chronic bovine mastitis. This study investigates the impact of biofilm formation by clinical NT S. aureus on cytokine production and mammary tissue damage by using a mouse mastitis model. Mice infected with two different NT S. aureus strains with strong and weak biofilm forming potential demonstrated identical clinical symptoms (moderate), minimal inflammatory infiltrates, and tissue damage (level 1 histopathological changes) in the mammary glands. However, the S. aureus load in the mammary glands of mice and the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, IL-17 and IFN-γ) in serum were significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in those infected with the strong biofilm forming NT S. aureus strain. The level of IL-6 in sera samples of these mice was extremely high (15,479.9 ± 532 Pg/mL). Furthermore, these mice died in 24h of post infection compared to 30 h in the weak biofilm forming NT S. aureus infected group. The study demonstrates no association between the strength of PIA (polysaccharide intercellular adhesion)-dependent biofilm production by clinical NT S. aureus and mammary gland pathology in a mouse mastitis model. However, the role of biofilm in the virulence of S. aureus advancing the time of mortality in mice warrants further investigation.

A cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate the risk factors associated with the Salmonella infection status of dairy herds in Henan and Hubei provinces, China. Herds were assigned a Salmonella status based on the isolation of Salmonella from fecal samples obtained from adult lactating dairy cows. Information on potential biosecurity risk factors was collected using a questionnaire template via a 15-min face-to-face interview with dairy cattle producers from May 2020 to March 2021. The questionnaire consisted of 23 questions across two broad categories of potential biosecurity risk factors: farm and biosecurity managemental factors. A total of 48 farms were surveyed. In all (100%, 48/48) of the surveyed farms, although sick animals were separated from healthy animals using fencing, there were no strict quarantine protocols for newly introduced animals. Mixed species rearing was practiced in 35.4% (17/48) of the farms. Feces were removed more than once a day in 45.8% (22/48) of the farms, whereas the remainder (54.2%, 26/48) only removed animal feces once a day. A total of 29.2% (14/48) of the farms were located < 2 km from other livestock farms. The use of personal protective equipment was consistently performed on all farms, with a majority of the workers on most farms (81.3%, 39/48) always disinfecting footwear before entering production areas. A significant association between Salmonella -positive status and the high frequency of the presence of wildlife (birds and rodents in sheds and feed storage places) was recorded (OR: 11.9, 95% CI: 1.7, 84.1, p  = 0.013). Fortunately, no farms shared farm equipment with other farms. The study highlights the occurrence of wildlife as a risk factor for the presence of Salmonella in investigated dairy herds. There is a need to institute appropriate on-farm control measures for wild birds and rodents to control the potential spread of Salmonella in dairy production systems.

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) remains a significant and highly contagious pathogen that markedly impacts production and reproductive performances of different animals worldwide. This review represents the global epidemiology of BVDV, emphasizing its genetic diversity, prevalence, host range, associated risk factors, diagnostic advancements, and control strategies. A systematic electronic search was performed to retrieve relevant published articles. A total of 248 studies published over the past 26 years (from January 2000 to March 2025) across 69 countries were included. Data showed that BVDV‐1 has been detected across all the continents and comprises 25 subgenotypes (1a‐1x and Chinese ZM‐95), of which the predominant subgenotypes are 1a, 1b, and 1c. Multiple subgenotypes, such as BVDV‐1f, 1g, 1h, 1k, 1l, 1r, 1s, 1t, 1u, and 1x, were distinct and circulating in European countries. Additionally, five subgenotypes (2a–2e) of BVDV‐2 have been identified, with BVDV‐2a being the most frequently reported in different geographical locations. Notably, the emergence of HoBi‐like pestivirus subgenotypes (BVDV‐3a–3d) has been detected in Russia, Italy, Thailand, India, and Bangladesh. Overall, the high prevalence of BVDV has been reported in various European (2.9%–87.1%) and Asian countries (0.2%–89.49%). Although cattle are the primary host, BVDV infections have been documented across a wide range of domestic and wild species, including buffalo, sheep, goats, deer, bison, yak, camelids (camels, alpacas, and llamas), pigs, and wild boar. While Ag/Ab‐ELISA remains a widely used diagnostic method, advanced techniques, such as RT‐qPCR, CRISPR‐Cas12a, RT‐LAMP, and genome sequencing, are utilized for confirmatory identification and genotyping of BVDV. Introduction of persistently infected (PI) animals into herds, grazing on common pasture, animal movements, mixed farming practices, and unhygienic breeding practices were frequently documented as potential risk factors. Key measures for controlling and eradicating BVDV include culling of PI animals, prophylactic vaccination, and avoiding mixed farming practices.

Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) can cause a multitude of diseases in cattle, with detrimental effects on the farm economy and the welfare of both adult and young cattle. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of M. bovis in adult cows and calves in the south-west region of Western Australia. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 29 dairy farms with 699 apparently healthy adult lactating cows and 495 young calves during 2019–2020. Nasal swabs and blood samples collected from the animals and bulk tank milk (BTM) samples were assessed for M. bovis-specific proteins and antibodies by using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Mycoplasma immunogenic lipase A- Enzyme-Linked Immune Sorbent Assay (MilA ELISA). A seroprevalence of 42.5% (95% CI: 38.9–46.2) and 61% (95% CI: 56.6–65.2) was found in adult lactating cows and calves, respectively. The herd-level seroprevalence of M. bovis ranged from 4% (95% CI: 07–19.5) to 92% (95% CI: 75.0–97.8) in adult lactating cows and 25% (95% CI: 10.2–49.5) to 87% (95% CI: 67.9–95.5) for calves in these farms. None of the BTM and nasal swab samples were positive for M. bovis, indicating an absence of any current active infections on the farms. The female calves and pure Holstein–Friesian animals are twice as likely to be seropositive for M. bovis compared to male calves (OR 2.4; 95% CI: 1.7–3.5) and Holstein–Friesian crossbred calves (OR 2.4; 95% CI: 1.7–3.5). The high seroprevalence in both adult and young cattle in the southwest dairy farms of Western Australia warrants more effective farm biosecurity measures and further evaluation of the current prevention and management measures practiced on the farms.

The objective of this study was to estimate the fecal carriage of Salmonella spp. among culled adult dairy cows presented to an abattoir in Wuhan, China and to evaluate their antimicrobial resistance profiles. Rectal swabs from 138 culled cows were cultured. Laboratory analysis involved the identification of Salmonella, the susceptibility assessment and the presence of Extended Spectrum β-lactamases and mcr genes in the isolates. An overall prevalence of Salmonella of 29.0% was recorded with 63.4% (26/41) and 2.4% (1/41) of the isolates identified as S. Typhimurium and S. Dublin, respectively. The occurrence of Salmonella was higher (odd ratios: 3.3) in culled cows originating from the northeast zone of China than cows originating from the central and north zones. Twenty multi-drug resistant strains (resistant to three or more antimicrobial agents) were detected (48.8%) and overall, a high resistance to ampicillin (36/41) and tetracycline (15/41) was observed. Extended Spectrum β-lactamases phenotypes were found in 7/41 isolates, of which all contained the blaCTX-M resistance gene, and no mcr genes were found by polymerase chain reaction. The high prevalence of Salmonella fecal carriage and antimicrobial resistance may contribute to an increased risk of Salmonella transmission to food.