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Key Points RADseq has fuelled studies in ecological, evolutionary and conservation genomics by using next-generation sequencing to uncover hundreds or thousands of polymorphic loci across the genome in a single, simple and cost-effective experiment. RADseq does not require any prior genomic information for the taxa being studied, and is therefore particularly advantageous for studies of non-model organisms. Numerous technical variations on RADseq have been developed, which promise to increase the flexibility and decrease the cost and effort of genomics studies. Differences among the methods lead to important considerations for all steps of genomics studies, from the types of scientific questions that can be addressed and the costs of library preparation and sequencing to the types of bias and error that are inherent in the resulting data. Allele dropout, PCR duplicates and variance in depth of coverage among loci are important sources of error and bias in RADseq studies, and the prevalence of these phenomena will vary across RADseq methods. Other important considerations when designing a RADseq study include the number, length and coverage of loci needed to address the research question; the availability of prior genomic resources; the budget; and the consistency of data across sequencing runs and laboratories. There is no single best or most flexible RADseq method. Researchers must consider the trade-offs of the different methods, and choose the approach that is best suited to their study goals. Technical differences between the many variant methods that are based on restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) lead to trade-offs in experimental design and analysis. Here, the authors comprehensively review the various RADseq approaches and provide general considerations for designing a RADseq study. High-throughput techniques based on restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) are enabling the low-cost discovery and genotyping of thousands of genetic markers for any species, including non-model organisms, which is revolutionizing ecological, evolutionary and conservation genetics. Technical differences among these methods lead to important considerations for all steps of genomics studies, from the specific scientific questions that can be addressed, and the costs of library preparation and sequencing, to the types of bias and error inherent in the resulting data. In this Review, we provide a comprehensive discussion of RADseq methods to aid researchers in choosing among the many different approaches and avoiding erroneous scientific conclusions from RADseq data, a problem that has plagued other genetic marker types in the past.

\"\"Info we trust\" celebrates data storytelling, as explained by one of the field's most talented creators. Both engineer and artist, RJ Andrews draws on disciplines from across the human experience to show how to create new ways of seeing the world. And most importantly, to build powerful data-driven information that is worthy of trust. Maps, charts, and diagrams are the artifacts we use to picture information. But the lively exchanges these objects spark are what create meaning. How they inform, what they tell us and how they impact our decisions, matters most. This book shows how to arrange data into stories that deliver insights and inspiration.\"--Provided by publisher.

The vomiting (emetic) reflex is documented in numerous mammalian species, including primates and carnivores, yet laboratory rats and mice appear to lack this response. It is unclear whether these rodents do not vomit because of anatomical constraints (e.g., a relatively long abdominal esophagus) or lack of key neural circuits. Moreover, it is unknown whether laboratory rodents are representative of Rodentia with regards to this reflex. Here we conducted behavioral testing of members of all three major groups of Rodentia; mouse-related (rat, mouse, vole, beaver), Ctenohystrica (guinea pig, nutria), and squirrel-related (mountain beaver) species. Prototypical emetic agents, apomorphine (sc), veratrine (sc), and copper sulfate (ig), failed to produce either retching or vomiting in these species (although other behavioral effects, e.g., locomotion, were noted). These rodents also had anatomical constraints, which could limit the efficiency of vomiting should it be attempted, including reduced muscularity of the diaphragm and stomach geometry that is not well structured for moving contents towards the esophagus compared to species that can vomit (cat, ferret, and musk shrew). Lastly, an in situ brainstem preparation was used to make sensitive measures of mouth, esophagus, and shoulder muscular movements, and phrenic nerve activity–key features of emetic episodes. Laboratory mice and rats failed to display any of the common coordinated actions of these indices after typical emetic stimulation (resiniferatoxin and vagal afferent stimulation) compared to musk shrews. Overall the results suggest that the inability to vomit is a general property of Rodentia and that an absent brainstem neurological component is the most likely cause. The implications of these findings for the utility of rodents as models in the area of emesis research are discussed.

Key Points In the past 15 years, mind-wandering has become a prominent topic in cognitive neuroscience and psychology. Whereas mind-wandering has come to be predominantly defined as task-unrelated and/or stimulus-unrelated thought, we argue that this content-based definition fails to capture the defining quality of mind-wandering: the relatively free and spontaneous arising of mental states as the mind wanders. We define spontaneous thought as a mental state, or a sequence of mental states, that arises relatively freely due to an absence of strong constraints on the contents of each state and on the transitions from one mental state to another. We propose that there are two general ways in which the content of mental states, and the transitions between them, can be constrained. Deliberate and automatic constraints serve to limit the contents of thought and how these contents change over time. Deliberate constraints are implemented through cognitive control, whereas automatic constraints can be considered as a family of mechanisms that operate outside of cognitive control, including sensory or affective salience. Within our framework, mind-wandering can be defined as a special case of spontaneous thought that tends to be more deliberately constrained than dreaming, but less deliberately constrained than creative thinking and goal-directed thought. In addition, mind-wandering can be clearly distinguished from rumination and other types of thought that are marked by a high degree of automatic constraints, such as obsessive thought. In general, deliberate constraints are minimal during dreaming, tend to increase somewhat during mind-wandering, increase further during creative thinking and are strongest during goal-directed thought. There is a range of low-to-medium level of automatic constraints that can occur during dreaming, mind-wandering and creative thinking, but thought ceases to be spontaneous at the strongest levels of automatic constraint, such as during rumination or obsessive thought. We propose a neural model of the interactions among sources of variability, automatic constraints and deliberate constraints on thought: the default network (DN) subsystem centred around the medial temporal lobe (MTL) (DN MTL ) and sensorimotor areas can act as sources of variability; the salience networks, the dorsal attention network (DAN) and the core DN subsystem (DN CORE ) can exert automatic constraints on the output of the DN MTL and sensorimotor areas, thus limiting the variability of thought; and the frontoparietal control network can exert deliberate constraints on thought by flexibly coupling with the DN CORE , the DAN or the salience networks, thus reinforcing or reducing the automatic constraints being exerted by the DN CORE , the DAN or the salience networks. Mind-wandering is often defined as task-unrelated or stimulus-unrelated thought. In this Review, Christoff and colleagues present a definition for mind-wandering that places more emphasis on the dynamic nature of this process. They also examine the brain networks underlying mind-wandering and its involvement in various brain disorders. Most research on mind-wandering has characterized it as a mental state with contents that are task unrelated or stimulus independent. However, the dynamics of mind-wandering — how mental states change over time — have remained largely neglected. Here, we introduce a dynamic framework for understanding mind-wandering and its relationship to the recruitment of large-scale brain networks. We propose that mind-wandering is best understood as a member of a family of spontaneous-thought phenomena that also includes creative thought and dreaming. This dynamic framework can shed new light on mental disorders that are marked by alterations in spontaneous thought, including depression, anxiety and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Converting low-frequency electrical signals into much higher-frequency optical signals has enabled modern communication networks to leverage the strengths of both microfabricated electrical circuits and optical fibre transmission, enabling information networks to grow in size and complexity. A microwave-to-optical converter in a quantum information network could provide similar gains by linking quantum processors through low-loss optical fibres and enabling a large-scale quantum network. However, no current technology can convert low-frequency microwave signals into high-frequency optical signals while preserving their fragile quantum state. Here we demonstrate a converter that provides a bidirectional, coherent and efficient link between the microwave and optical portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. We use our converter to transfer classical signals between microwave and optical light with conversion efficiencies of ∼10%, and achieve performance sufficient to transfer quantum states if the device were further precooled from its current 4 K operating temperature to temperatures below 40 mK. An optomechanical system that converts microwaves to optical frequency light and vice versa is demonstrated. The technique achieves a conversion efficiency of approximately 10%. The results indicate that the device could work at the quantum level, up- and down-converting individual photons, if it were cooled to millikelvin temperatures. It could, therefore, form an integral part of quantum-processor networks.

Lifestyle changes soon after diagnosis might improve outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, but no large trials have compared interventions. We investigated the effects of diet and physical activity on blood pressure and glucose concentrations. We did a randomised, controlled trial in southwest England in adults aged 30–80 years in whom type 2 diabetes had been diagnosed 5–8 months previously. Participants were assigned usual care (initial dietary consultation and follow-up every 6 months; control group), an intensive diet intervention (dietary consultation every 3 months with monthly nurse support), or the latter plus a pedometer-based activity programme, in a 2:5:5 ratio. The primary endpoint was improvement in glycated haemoglobin A 1c(HbA 1c) concentration and blood pressure at 6 months. Analysis was done by intention to treat. This study is registered, number ISRCTN92162869. Of 593 eligible individuals, 99 were assigned usual care, 248 the diet regimen, and 246 diet plus activity. Outcome data were available for 587 (99%) and 579 (98%) participants at 6 and 12 months, respectively. At 6 months, glycaemic control had worsened in the control group (mean baseline HbA 1c percentage 6·72, SD 1·02, and at 6 months 6·86, 1·02) but improved in the diet group (baseline-adjusted difference in percentage of HbA 1c −0·28%, 95% CI −0·46 to −0·10; p=0·005) and diet plus activity group (−0·33%, −0·51 to −0·14; p<0·001). These differences persisted to 12 months, despite less use of diabetes drugs. Improvements were also seen in bodyweight and insulin resistance between the intervention and control groups. Blood pressure was similar in all groups. An intensive diet intervention soon after diagnosis can improve glycaemic control. The addition of an activity intervention conferred no additional benefit. Diabetes UK and the UK Department of Health.