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"Armstrong, Elizabeth"
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Hegemonic Femininities and Intersectional Domination
We examine how two sociological traditions account for the role of femininities in social domination. The masculinities tradition theorizes gender as an independent structure of domination; consequently, femininities that complement hegemonic masculinities are treated as passively compliant in the reproduction of gender. In contrast, Patricia Hill Collins views cultural ideals of hegemonic femininity as simultaneously raced, classed, and gendered. This intersectional perspective allows us to recognize women striving to approximate hegemonic cultural ideals of femininity as actively complicit in reproducing a matrix of domination. We argue that hegemonic femininities reference a powerful location in the matrix from which some women draw considerable individual benefits (i.e., a femininity premium) while shoring up collective benefits along other dimensions of advantage. In the process, they engage in intersectional domination of other women and even some men. Our analysis re-enforces the utility of analyzing femininities and masculinities from within an intersectional feminist framework.
Journal Article
GENDERED SEXUALITY IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD: Double Binds and Flawed Options
Current work on hooking up—or casual sexual activity on college campuses—takes an individualistic, \"battle of the sexes\" approach and underestimates the importance of college as a classed location. The authors employ an interactional, intersectional approach using longitudinal ethnographic and interview data on a group of college women's sexual and romantic careers. They find that heterosexual college women contend with public gender beliefs about women's sexuality that reinforce male dominance across both hookups and committed relationships. The four-year university, however, also reflects a privileged path to adulthood. The authors show that it is characterized by a classed self-development imperative that discourages relationships but makes hooking up appealing. Experiences of this structural conflict vary. More privileged women struggle to meet gender and class guidelines for sexual behavior, placing them in double binds. Less privileged women find the class beliefs of the university foreign and hostile to their sexual and romantic logics.
Journal Article
Silence, Power, and Inequality: An Intersectional Approach to Sexual Violence
Sexual violence reproduces inequalities of gender, race ethnicity, class, age, sexuality, ability status, citizenship status, and nationality. Yet its study has been relegated to the margins of our discipline, with consequences for knowledge about the reproduction of social inequality. We begin with an overview of key insights about sexual violence elaborated by feminists, critical race scholars, and activists. This research leads us to conceptualize sexual violence as a mechanism of inequality that is made more effective by the silencing of its usage. We trace legal and cultural contestations over the definition of sexual violence in the United States. We consider the challenges of narrating sexual violence and review how the narrow focus on gender by some anti-sexual violence activism fails women of color and other marginalized groups. We conclude by interrogating the sociological silence on sexual violence.
Journal Article
\Good Girls\: Gender, Social Class, and Slut Discourse on Campus
Women's participation in slut shaming is often viewed as internalized oppression: they apply disadvantageous sexual double standards established by men. This perspective grants women little agency and neglects their simultaneous location in other social structures. In this article we synthesize insights from social psychology, gender, and culture to argue that undergraduate women use slut stigma to draw boundaries around status groups linked to social class—while also regulating sexual behavior and gender performance. High-status women employ slut discourse to assert class advantage, defining themselves as classy rather than trashy, while low-status women express class resentment—deriding rich, bitchy sluts for their exclusivity. Slut discourse enables, rather than constrains, sexual experimentation for the high-status women whose definitions prevail in the dominant social scene. This is a form of sexual privilege. In contrast, low-status women risk public shaming when they attempt to enter dominant social worlds.
Journal Article
Distinguishing Low and High Water Consumers—A Paradigm of Disease Risk
A long-standing body of clinical observations associates low 24-h total water intake (TWI = water + beverages + food moisture) with acute renal disorders such as kidney stones and urinary tract infections. These findings prompted observational studies and experimental interventions comparing habitual low volume (LOW) and high volume (HIGH) drinkers. Investigators have learned that the TWI of LOW and HIGH differ by 1–2 L·d−1, their hematological values (e.g., plasma osmolality, plasma sodium) are similar and lie within the laboratory reference ranges of healthy adults and both groups appear to successfully maintain water-electrolyte homeostasis. However, LOW differs from HIGH in urinary biomarkers (e.g., reduced urine volume and increased osmolality or specific gravity), as well as higher plasma concentrations of arginine vasopressin (AVP) and cortisol. Further, evidence suggests that both a low daily TWI and/or elevated plasma AVP influence the development and progression of metabolic syndrome, diabetes, obesity, chronic kidney disease, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Based on these studies, we propose a theory of increased disease risk in LOW that involves chronic release of fluid-electrolyte (i.e., AVP) and stress (i.e., cortisol) hormones. This narrative review describes small but important differences between LOW and HIGH, advises future investigations and provides practical dietary recommendations for LOW that are intended to decrease their risk of chronic diseases.
Journal Article
Culture, Power, and Institutions: A Multi-Institutional Politics Approach to Social Movements
We argue that critiques of political process theory are beginning to coalesce into new approach to social movements--a \"multi-institutional politics\" approach. While the political process model assumes that domination is organized by and around one source of power, the alternative perspective views domination as organized around multiple sources of power, each of which is simultaneously material and symbolic. We examine the conceptions of social movements, politics, actors, goals, and strategies supported by each model, demonstrating that the view of society and power underlying the political process model is too narrow to encompass the diversity of contemporary change efforts. Through empirical examples, we demonstrate that the alternative approach provides powerful analytical tools for the analysis of a wide variety of contemporary change efforts.
Journal Article
Accounting for Women's Orgasm and Sexual Enjoyment in College Hookups and Relationships
This article investigates the determinants of orgasm and sexual enjoyment in hookup and relationship sex among heterosexual college women and seeks to explain why relationship sex is better for women in terms of orgasm and sexual enjoyment. We use data from women respondents to a large online survey of undergraduates at 21 U.S. colleges and universities and from 85 in-depth interviews at two universities. We identify four general views of the sources of orgasm and sexual enjoyment—technically competent genital stimulation, partnerspecific learning, commitment, and gender equality. We find that women have orgasms more often in relationships than in hookups. Regression analyses reveal that specific sexual practices, experience with a particular partner, and commitment all predict women's orgasm and sexual enjoyment. The presence of more sexual practices conducive to women's orgasm in relationship sex explains some of why orgasm is more common in relationships. Qualitative analysis suggests a double standard also contributes to why relationship sex is better for women: both men and women question women's (but not men's) entitlement to pleasure in hookups but believe strongly in women's (as well as men's) entitlement to pleasure in relationships. More attention is thus given to producing female orgasm in relationships.
Journal Article
Sexual Assault on Campus: A Multilevel, Integrative Approach to Party Rape
This article explains why rates of sexual assault remain high on college campuses. Data are from a study of college life at a large midwestern university involving nine months of ethnographic observation of a women's floor in a \"party dorm,\" in-depth interviews with 42 of the floor residents, and 16 group interviews with other students. We show that sexual assault is a predictable outcome of a synergistic intersection of processes operating at individual, organizational, and interactional levels. Some processes are explicitly gendered, while others appear to be gender neutral. We discuss student homogeneity, expectations that partiers drink heavily and trust their party-mates, and residential arrangements. We explain how these factors intersect with more obviously gendered processes such as gender differences in sexual agendas, fraternity control of parties, and expectations that women be nice and defer to men. We show that partying produces fun as well as sexual assault, generating student resistance to criticizing the party scene or men's behavior in it. We conclude with implications for policy. Keywords: sexual assault, party rape, college students, peer culture, gender inequality.
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