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Global warming is expected to intensify the Earth's hydrological cycle and increase flood and drought risks. Changes over the 21st century under two warming scenarios in different percentiles of the probability distribution of streamflow, and particularly of high and low streamflow extremes (95th and 5th percentiles), are analyzed using an ensemble of bias-corrected global climate model (GCM) fields fed into different global hydrological models (GHMs) provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISI-MIP) to understand the changes in streamflow distribution and simultaneous vulnerability to different types of hydrological risk in different regions. In the multi-model mean under the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 (RCP8.5) scenario, 37 % of global land areas experience an increase in magnitude of extremely high streamflow (with an average increase of 24.5 %), potentially increasing the chance of flooding in those regions. On the other hand, 43 % of global land areas show a decrease in the magnitude of extremely low streamflow (average decrease of 51.5 %), potentially increasing the chance of drought in those regions. About 10 % of the global land area is projected to face simultaneously increasing high extreme streamflow and decreasing low extreme streamflow, reflecting the potentially worsening hazard of both flood and drought; further, these regions tend to be highly populated parts of the globe, currently holding around 30 % of the world's population (over 2.1 billion people). In a world more than 4° warmer by the end of the 21st century compared to the pre-industrial era (RCP8.5 scenario), changes in magnitude of streamflow extremes are projected to be about twice as large as in a 2° warmer world (RCP2.6 scenario). Results also show that inter-GHM uncertainty in streamflow changes, due to representation of terrestrial hydrology, is greater than the inter-GCM uncertainty due to simulation of climate change. Under both forcing scenarios, there is high model agreement for increases in streamflow of the regions near and above the Arctic Circle, and consequent increases in the freshwater inflow to the Arctic Ocean, while subtropical arid areas experience a reduction in streamflow.

The Charged System Search (CSS) metaheuristic algorithm is introduced to the field of water resources management and applied to derive water-supply and hydro-power operating policies for a large-scale real-world reservoir system. The optimum algorithm parameters for each reservoir operation problems are also obtained via a tuning procedure. The CSS algorithm is a metaheuristic optimization method inspired by the governing laws of electrostatics in physics and motion from the Newtonian mechanics. In this study, the CSS algorithm’s performance has been tested with benchmark problems, consisting of highly non-linear constrained and/or unconstrained real-valued mathematical models, such as the Ackley’s function and Fletcher–Powell function. The CSS algorithm is then used to optimally solve the water-supply and hydropower operation of “Dez” reservoir in southern Iran over three different operation periods of 60, 240, and 480 months, and the results are presented and compared with those obtained by other available optimization approaches including Genetic Algorithm (GA), Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Constrained Big Bang–Big Crunch (CBB–BC) algorithm, as well as those obtained by gradient-based Non-Linear Programming (NLP) approach. The results demonstrate the robustness and superiority of the CSS algorithm in solving long term reservoir operation problems, compared to alternative methods. The CSS algorithm is used for the first time in the field of water resources management, and proves to be a robust, accurate, and fast convergent method in handling complex problems in this filed. The application of this approach in other water management problems such as multi-reservoir operation and conjunctive surface/ground water resources management remains to be studied.

To understand changes in global mean and extreme streamflow volumes over recent decades, we statistically analyzed runoff and streamflow simulated by the WBM-plus hydrological model using either observational-based meteorological inputs from WATCH Forcing Data (WFD), or bias-corrected inputs from five global climate models (GCMs) provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISI-MIP). Results show that the bias-corrected GCM inputs yield very good agreement with the observation-based inputs in average magnitude of runoff and streamflow. On global average, the observation-based simulated mean runoff and streamflow both decreased about 1.3% from 1971 to 2001. However, GCM-based simulations yield increasing trends over that period, with an inter-model global average of 1% for mean runoff and 0.9% for mean streamflow. In the GCM-based simulations, relative changes in extreme runoff and extreme streamflow (annual maximum daily values and annual-maximum seven-day streamflow) are slightly greater than those of mean runoff and streamflow, in terms of global and continental averages. Observation-based simulations show increasing trend in mean runoff and streamflow for about one-half of the land areas and decreasing trend for the other half. However, mean and extreme runoff and streamflow based on the GCMs show increasing trend for approximately two-thirds of the global land area and decreasing trend for the other one-third. Further work is needed to understand why GCM simulations appear to indicate trends in streamflow that are more positive than those suggested by climate observations, even where, as in ISI-MIP, bias correction has been applied so that their streamflow climatology is realistic.

Anthropogenic changes in global climate and intensification of Earth’s hydrological cycle have resulted in increased amount of moisture in the atmosphere, which is expected to increase the intensity of extreme precipitation events, with proportionally greater impact than for mean precipitation. Change in distribution, frequency, and intensity of precipitation under climate change is expected to result in increased intensity and frequency of flood and drought events in many regions. Here, we present a systematic global-scale comparison of changes in historical annual-maximum daily precipitation between station observations and 15 global climate models from the fifth phase of the Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project. We find that both observations and climate models show generally increasing trends in extreme precipitation since 1901, with largest changes in deep tropics. Annual-maximum daily precipitation increased faster in the observations than in most of the models. On global scale, the observational Rx1day has increased by an average of 5.73 mm over the last 110 years, or 8.5% in relative terms. This corresponds to an increase of 10% per K of global warming since 1901, which is larger than the average of climate models with 8.3%/K. The average rate of increase in extreme precipitation per K of warming in both models and observations is higher than the rate of increase in atmospheric water vapor content per K of warming expected from the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. Considering the underestimation seen in climate models compared to observations in capturing extreme precipitation trends, we then used bias-corrected simulated precipitation from GCMs prepared under the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project and compare it to GHCN-Daily observations. We develop a simple rainwater harvesting system model and drive it with observational and modeled precipitation as a tool of studying change in water resources reliability. For 1951-2010, results show faster increase in observed maximum precipitation than mean precipitation, and increased reliability of the model RWHS driven by observed precipitation by an average of 0.2% per decade. Compared to observations, climate models underestimate the increasing trends in mean and maximum precipitation and show the opposite direction of change in reliability of a model water supply system. Statistical analysis of runoff and streamflow simulated by the WBM-plus hydrological model using either observational-based meteorological inputs from WFD, or bias-corrected inputs from 5 GCMs provided by ISI-MIP shows that the bias-corrected GCM inputs yield very good agreement with the observation-based inputs in average magnitude of runoff and streamflow. However, GCM-based simulations yield increasing trends over that period, with an inter-model global average of 4.4% for mean runoff and 3.9% for mean streamflow. In the GCM-based simulations, relative changes in extreme runoff and extreme streamflow are slightly greater than those of mean runoff and streamflow, in terms of global and continental averages. Observation-based simulations show increasing trend in mean runoff and streamflow for about one-half of the land areas and decreasing trend for the other half. However, mean and extreme runoff and streamflow based on the GCMs show increasing trend for approximately two-thirds of the global land area and decreasing trend for the other one-third. In the next step, we analyzed changes in global high and low streamflow extremes over the 21st century under two warming scenarios as indicators of hydrologic flood and drought intensity, using an ensemble of 5 bias-corrected GCM fields fed into 5 different global hydrological models from the ISI-MIP. Based on multi-model mean, approximately 37% and 43% of global land areas are exposed to increases in flood and drought intensities, respectively, by the end of the 21st century under RCP8.5 scenario. Nearly 10% of the global land areas are under the potential risk of simultaneous increase in both flood and drought intensities, with average rates of 10.1% and 19.8%, respectively; further, these regions tend to be highly populated parts of the globe, currently holding around 30% of the world’s population. Results also show that GHMs contribute to more uncertainties in streamflow changes than the GCMs. (Abstract shortened by ProQuest.)