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Conserving threatened species requires identifying where across their range they are being impacted by threats, yet this remains unresolved across most of Earth. Here, we present a global analysis of cumulative human impacts on threatened species by using a spatial framework that jointly considers the co-occurrence of eight threatening processes and the distribution of 5,457 terrestrial vertebrates. We show that impacts to species are widespread, occurring across 84% of Earth's surface, and identify hotspots of impacted species richness and coolspots of unimpacted species richness. Almost one-quarter of assessed species are impacted across >90% of their distribution, and approximately 7% are impacted across their entire range. These results foreshadow localised extirpations and potential extinctions without conservation action. The spatial framework developed here offers a tool for defining strategies to directly mitigate the threats driving species' declines, providing essential information for future national and global conservation agendas.

Conservation strategies based on charismatic flagship species, such as tigers, lions, and elephants, successfully attract funding from individuals and corporate donors. However, critics of this species-focused approach argue it wastes resources and often does not benefit broader biodiversity. If true, then the best way of raising conservation funds excludes the best way of spending it. Here we show that this conundrum can be resolved, and that the flagship species approach does not impede cost-effective conservation. Through a tailored prioritization approach, we identify places containing flagship species while also maximizing global biodiversity representation (based on 19,616 terrestrial and freshwater species). We then compare these results to scenarios that only maximized biodiversity representation, and demonstrate that our flagship-based approach achieves 79−89% of our objective. This provides strong evidence that prudently selected flagships can both raise funds for conservation and help target where these resources are best spent to conserve biodiversity. Conservation actions focused on flagship species are effective at raising funds and awareness. Here, McGowan et al. show that prioritizing areas for conservation based on the presence of flagship species results in the selection of areas with ~ 79-89% of the total species that would be selected by maximizing biodiversity representation only.

Multiple languages being spoken within a species’ distribution can impede communication among conservation stakeholders, the compilation of scientific information, and the development of effective conservation actions. Here, we investigate the number of official languages spoken within the distributions of 10,863 bird species to identify which species might be particularly affected by consequences of language barriers. We show that 1587 species have 10 languages or more spoken within their distributions. Threatened and migratory species have significantly more languages spoken within their distributions, when controlling for range size. Particularly high numbers of species with many languages within their distribution are found in Eastern Europe, Russia and central and western Asia. Global conservation efforts would benefit from implementing guidelines to overcome language barriers, especially in regions with high species and language diversity.

Incorporating the values of the services that ecosystems provide into decision making is becoming increasingly common in nature conservation and resource management policies, both locally and globally. Yet with limited funds for conservation of threatened species and ecosystems there is a desire to identify priority areas where investment efficiently conserves multiple ecosystem services. We mapped four mangrove ecosystems services (coastal protection, fisheries, biodiversity, and carbon storage) across Fiji. Using a cost-effectiveness analysis, we prioritised mangrove areas for each service, where the effectiveness was a function of the benefits provided to the local communities, and the costs were associated with restricting specific uses of mangroves. We demonstrate that, although priority mangrove areas (top 20%) for each service can be managed at relatively low opportunity costs (ranging from 4.5 to 11.3% of overall opportunity costs), prioritising for a single service yields relatively low co-benefits due to limited geographical overlap with priority areas for other services. None-the-less, prioritisation of mangrove areas provides greater overlap of benefits than if sites were selected randomly for most ecosystem services. We discuss deficiencies in the mapping of ecosystems services in data poor regions and how this may impact upon the equity of managing mangroves for particular services across the urban-rural divide in developing countries. Finally we discuss how our maps may aid decision-makers to direct funding for mangrove management from various sources to localities that best meet funding objectives, as well as how this knowledge can aid in creating a national mangrove zoning scheme.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000158.].

Reducing deforestation underpins global biodiversity conservation efforts. However, this focus on retaining forest cover overlooks the multitude of anthropogenic pressures that can degrade forest quality and imperil biodiversity. We use remotely sensed indices of tropical rainforest structural condition and associated human pressures to quantify the relative importance of forest cover, structural condition and integrity (the cumulative effect of condition and pressures) on vertebrate species extinction risk and population trends across the global humid tropics. We found that tropical rainforests of high integrity (structurally intact and under low pressures) were associated with lower likelihood of species being threatened and having declining populations, compared with forest cover alone (without consideration of condition and pressures). Further, species were more likely to be threatened or have declining populations if their geographic ranges contained high proportions of degraded forest than if their ranges contained lower proportions of forest cover but of high quality. Our work suggests that biodiversity conservation policies to preserve forest integrity are now urgently required alongside ongoing efforts to halt deforestation in the hyperdiverse humid tropics. Not all forest cover is of equal quality. Here, the authors ask whether forest cover or forest structural complexity influences extinction risk in tropical rainforest vertebrates, finding that forest structural conditions are more important than cover alone in terms of buffering species against extinction and population declines.

Invasive species management involves complex and multidimensional challenges. There is considerable uncertainty regarding how to identify management strategies that will achieve invasive species control to enhance biodiversity, local economies and human well‐being. Invasive species management on inhabited islands is especially challenging, often due to perceived socio‐political risks and unexpected technical difficulties. Failing to incorporate local knowledge and local perspectives in the early stages of planning can compromise the ability of decision makers to achieve long‐lasting conservation outcomes. Hence, engaging the community and accounting for stakeholder perceptions are essential for invasive species management, yet, these processes are often overlooked as they can be perceived as too difficult to implement, too costly and/or too slow for management timeframes. To address this gap, we present an application of invasive species management based on structured decision‐making, and INFFER—a cost‐benefit analysis tool—on Minjerribah‐North Stradbroke Island (Australia). We assessed the cost‐effectiveness of six management scenarios, co‐developed with local land managers and community groups, aimed at preserving the environmental and cultural significance of the island by eradicating European red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cats (Felis catus). Information was collected in a survey that elicited local stakeholders' perspectives regarding the significance of the Island, their perception of the benefits of the proposed management scenarios, funding requirements, technical feasibility of implementation and socio‐political risk. We found that low budgets achieve less cost‐effective results than higher budgets. The best strategy focussed on controlling the European red foxes on Minjerribah. However, our results also highlight the need for more research on feral cat management. This work demonstrates how to use a structured decision support tool, such as INFFER, to assess contesting management strategies. Using appropriate decision support tools is particularly important when stakeholders' perceptions regarding management outcomes are heterogeneous and uncertain. Resumen Existe incertidumbre acerca de cómo seleccionamos las mejores estrategias de manejo para especies invasoras con el fin de mejorar el medio ambiente, la economía local y el bienestar humano, ya que el manejo de especies invasoras implica desafíos complejos y multidimensionales. El manejo de especies invasoras en islas habitadas es especialmente desafiante, a menudo debido a los riesgos sociopolíticos percibidos y dificultades técnicas inesperadas. No incorporar el conocimiento y perspectivas locales durante las primeras etapas de la planificación puede comprometer la capacidad de los tomadores de decisiones para lograr resultados de conservación duraderos. Por lo tanto, asegurar el compromiso de la comunidad y tener en cuenta las percepciones de las partes interesadas es esencial para el manejo de especies invasoras, aunque a menudo esto no es llevado a cabo. Para abordar esta brecha, presentamos un método para el manejo de especies invasoras basada en la toma de decisiones estructurada, y la herramienta de asignación de recursos INFFER, una herramienta de análisis de costo‐beneficio, aplicada en Minjerribah‐North Stradbroke Island (Australia). Evaluamos el costo‐beneficio de seis escenarios de manejo, desarrollados en conjunto con administradores locales y grupos comunitarios, con el objetivo de preservar el ambiente y la cultura de la isla mediante la erradicación de los zorros rojos (Vulpes vulpes) y los gatos asilvestrados (Felis catus). Además, realizamos una encuesta para conocer las perspectivas de los grupos locales respecto a la importancia de la Isla, su percepción de los beneficios de los escenarios de gestión propuestos, los requisitos de financiamiento, la viabilidad técnica de la implementación y el riesgo sociopolítico. Descubrimos que las mejores decisiones cuando el presupuesto es bajo son menos rentables que cuando el presupuesto es alto. La mejor estrategia se centra en el control del zorro rojo. Sin embargo, nuestros resultados también resaltan la necesidad de mayor investigación sobre el manejo de gatos asilvestrados. Este trabajo demuestra cómo utilizar una herramienta de apoyo para la toma de decisiones estructuradas, como INFFER, para evaluar estrategias de gestión alternativas. El uso de herramientas apropiadas de apoyo a la toma de decisiones es particularmente importante cuando las percepciones de los interesados respecto a los resultados de gestión son heterogéneas e inciertas. RÉSUMÉ Il y a beaucoup d'incertitude quant à la manière de choisir les meilleures stratégies de gestion des espèces envahissantes pour améliorer l'environnement, l'économie locale et le bien‐être humain, car la gestion des espèces envahissantes implique des défis complexes et multidimensionnels. La gestion des espèces envahissantes sur les îles habitées est particulièrement difficile, souvent en raison des risques socio‐politiques perçus et des difficultés techniques imprévues. Ne pas incorporer les connaissances et les perspectives locales aux premiers stades de la planification peut compromettre la capacité des décideurs à obtenir des résultats durables en matière de conservation. Par conséquent, il est essentiel d'inclure la participation des communautés et la comptabilisation des perceptions des parties prenantes pour la gestion des espèces envahissantes, mais cela reste souvent ignoré. Pour pallier ce manque, nous présentons une application de la gestion des espèces envahissantes basée sur un processus décisionnel structuré, ainsi que l'outil d'allocation de ressources INFFER, un outil d'analyse coûts‐avantages, sur l'île de Minjerribah‐North Stradbroke (Australie). Nous avons évalué le rapport coût‐efficacité de six scénarios de gestion, élaborés conjointement avec des gestionnaires de terres et des groupes communautaires locaux, visant à préserver l'importance environnementale et culturelle de l'île en éliminant les renards roux européens (Vulpes vulpes) et les chats féraux (Felis catus). Nous avons également mené une enquête afin de recueillir les points de vue des parties prenantes locales sur l'importance de l'île, leur perception des avantages des scénarios de gestion proposés, les besoins de financement, la faisabilité technique de la mise en œuvre et les risques sociopolitiques. Nous avons constaté que, lorsque le budget est faible, les meilleures décisions sont moins rentables que lorsque le budget est élevé. La meilleure stratégie consiste à contrôler le renard roux européen à Minjerribah. Cependant, nos résultats soulignent également la nécessité de poursuivre les recherches sur la gestion des chats féraux. Ce travail montre comment utiliser un outil d'aide à la décision structuré, tel que INFFER, pour évaluer des stratégies de gestion en compétition. L'utilisation d'outils d'aide à la décision appropriés est particulièrement importante lorsque les perceptions des parties prenantes concernant les résultats de la gestion sont hétérogènes et incertaines. A plain language summary is available for this article. Plain Language Summary

Multiple languages being spoken within a species’ distribution can impede communication among conservation stakeholders, the compilation of scientific information, and the development of effective conservation actions. Here, we investigate the number of official languages spoken within the distributions of 10,863 bird species to identify which species might be particularly affected by consequences of language barriers. We show that 1587 species have 10 languages or more spoken within their distributions. Threatened and migratory species have significantly more languages spoken within their distributions, when controlling for range size. Particularly high numbers of species with many languages within their distribution are found in Eastern Europe, Russia and central and western Asia. Global conservation efforts would benefit from implementing guidelines to overcome language barriers, especially in regions with high species and language diversity.

More ambitious conservation efforts are needed to stop the global biodiversity crisis. Here, we estimate the minimum land area to secure important sites for terrestrial fauna, ecologically intact areas, and the optimal locations for representation of species ranges and ecoregions. We discover that at least 64 million km2 (44% of terrestrial area) requires conservation attention. Over 1.8 billion people live on these lands so responses that promote agency, self-determination, equity, and sustainable management for safeguarding biodiversity are essential. Spatially explicit land-use scenarios suggest that 1.3 million km2 of land requiring conservation could be lost to intensive human land-uses by 2030, which requires immediate attention. However, there is a seven-fold difference between the amount of habitat converted under optimistic and pessimistic scenarios, highlighting an opportunity to avert this crisis. Appropriate targets in the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework to ensure conservation of the identified land would contribute substantially to safeguarding biodiversity.

There is a lot of uncertainty about how we pick the best invasive species management strategies to improve the environment, local economy, and human well-being, as invasive species management involves complex and multidimensional challenges. Invasive species management on inhabited islands is especially challenging, often due to perceived socio-political risks and unexpected technical difficulties. Failing to incorporate local knowledge and local perspectives in the early stages of planning can compromise the ability of decision-makers to achieve long-lasting conservation outcomes. Hence, including local knowledge and accounting for subjective stakeholder perceptions is essential for invasive species management, yet this often remains unaddressed. To address this gap, we present an application of invasive species management based on structured decision-making, and the resource allocation tool INFFER, on Minjerribah-North Stradbroke Island (Australia). We assessed the cost-effectiveness of six management scenarios, co-developed with local land managers and community groups, aimed at preserving the environmental and cultural significance of the island by eradicating European red foxes and feral cats. We further conducted a survey eliciting local stakeholders’ perspectives regarding the significance of the Island, their perception of the benefits of the proposed management scenarios, funding requirements, technical feasibility of implementation, and socio-political risk. We found that the best decisions when the budget is low are less cost-effective than when the budget is high. The best strategy focusses on control of European red fox on Minjerribah. However, our results also highlight the need for more research on feral cat management. This work demonstrates how to use a structured decision support tool, like INFFER, to assess contesting management strategies, this is particularly important when stakeholders’ perceptions regarding management outcomes are heterogeneous and uncertain.