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Nests of Lindenius pygmaeus armatus were examined in northern Poland in Kowalewo Pomorskie and Sierakowo. Adults were encountered from late May to late July. The nests were built in sandy areas and wasteland. Seven nests were observed, of which two were dug up and their structure was examined. The channel was approximately 2.5 mm in diameter and 8–10 cm in the length. The material removed during digging was placed near the nest entrance. The main burrow led to 3–5 cells. The cocoons were approximately 5–7 mm long and 2.5–3.5 mm wide. Females of L. p. armatus provided their nest cells with chalcid wasps averaging 14 prey items per cell. Parasitoids Myrmosa atra and kleptoparasites Senotainia conica were observed entering the burrows. Both females and males of L. p. armatus were detected on the flowers of Achillea millefolium , Peucedanum oreoselinum , Daucus carota , and Tanacetum vulgare . The article also includes phylogenetic relationships of Western Palearctic Lindenius species.

The decline of pollinators in agricultural environments poses a significant threat to pollination ecosystem services. Wildflower strips are proposed as a strategy to support pollinator populations and enhance their species richness and diversity. We investigated the efficacy of flowering plant mixture in maintaining aculeate pollinator diversity (wild bees, predatory wasps, and their kleptoparasites) within intensively managed agricultural environments where rapeseed is a common rotational crop. Over four years, pollinators were counted five times per season using 250 m transect walks. Our results demonstrated that the diversity and the evenness of species abundance distribution of aculeate pollinators were higher in the sown wildflower strips, whereas mean abundance per transect was greater in the remnants of semi-natural grassland. The low diversity and evenness within the aculeate pollinator assemblage of the semi-natural habitat were attributed to the dominance of the sweat bee Lasioglossum pauxillum, which thrived on mass-flowering rapeseed and concentrated in the flowering grassland fragments after the rapeseed harvest. We conclude that wildflower strips enriched with sown flowering plant mixtures effectively enhance pollinator diversity. Furthermore, both wildflower strips and preserved patches of unmanaged or minimally managed semi-natural grassland habitats can essentially contribute to maintaining pollination ecosystem services within intensive agricultural environments.

Upon exploring the mitotype diversity of the aphid-hunting wasp, Diodontus tristis, we revealed specimens with highly divergent mitotypes from two localities in Lithuania and nesting in clayey substrate, while the specimens with typical mitotypes were found nesting in sandy sites. The comparison of inter- and intra-specific distances and application of delimitation algorithms supported the species status of the clay-nesting populations. Using a set of DNA markers that included complete or partial sequences of six mitochondrial genes, three markers of ribosomal operon, two homeobox genes, and four other nuclear genes, we clarified the phylogenetic relationships of the new cryptic species. The endosymbiotic bacteria infestation was checked, considering the option that the divergent populations may represent clades isolated by Wolbachia infection; however, it did not demonstrate any specificity. We found only subtle morphological differences in the new clay-nesting species, D. argillicola sp. nov.; the discriminant analysis of morphometric measurements did not reliably segregate it as well. Thus, we provide the molecular characters of the cryptic species, which allow confident identification, its phylogenetic position within the genus, and an updated identification key for the D. tristis species group.

Without robust and unbiased systems for monitoring, changes in natural systems will remain enigmatic for policy makers, leaving them without a clear idea of the consequences of any environmental policies they might adopt. Generally, biodiversity-monitoring activities are not integrated or evaluated across any large geographic region. The EuMon project conducted the first large-scale evaluation of monitoring practices in Europe through an on-line questionnaire and is reporting on the results of this survey. In September 2007 the EuMon project had documented 395 monitoring schemes for species, which represents a total annual cost of about [Euro Sign]4 million, involving more than 46,000 persons devoting over 148,000 person-days/year to biodiversity-monitoring activities. Here we focused on the analysis of variations of monitoring practices across a set of taxonomic groups (birds, amphibians and reptiles, mammals, butterflies, plants, and other insects) and across 5 European countries (France, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, and Poland). Our results suggest that the overall sampling effort of a scheme is linked with the proportion of volunteers involved in that scheme. Because precision is a function of the number of monitored sites and the number of sites is maximized by volunteer involvement, our results do not support the common belief that volunteer-based schemes are too noisy to be informative. Just the opposite, we believe volunteer-based schemes provide relatively reliable data, with state-of-the-art survey designs or data-analysis methods, and consequently can yield unbiased results. Quality of data collected by volunteers is more likely determined by survey design, analytical methodology, and communication skills within the schemes rather than by volunteer involvement per se.

A gynandromorph is an organism combining both female- and male-type tissues. While the vast majority of studies have described the morphology of gynandromorphs, their sexual behaviours remain under-explored. We studied a predominantly bilateral gynandromorph specimen of the predatory wasp Discoelius dufourii (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Zethinae) reared from a trap-nest. In addition to describing the morphology, we explored the gynandromorph’s response to a conspecific female, comparing it with the behavioural interactions between normal males and females of D. dufourii and the phylogenetically related D. zonalis . For most specific behavioural elements, males of both Discoelius species exhibited a greater frequency and a higher probability of occurrences of the behaviour than did females. However, aggression and plopping behaviours were prevalent in females. The gynandromorphic specimen demonstrated behavioural activities similar to those of a male, including a relatively frequent mate body antennation and an attempt to mount a female. However, it approached the female less frequently in comparison to conspecific normal males, and it did not demonstrate substrate antennation and jumping, typical of Discoelius male mating behaviour. Based on the parameters of the nest cell, the probability of the development of the gynandromorphic specimen from an unfertilized (male) egg was higher than the probability of development from a fertilized (female) egg.

The application of molecular methods in the studies of biological diversity revealed that there are many more species than we can recognise by their appearance. Species pairs or groups, which are difficult to recognise and are known as cryptic species, may differ in their ecological traits, place in trophic networks, and their functional role in ecosystems. It is important to separate cryptic species, particularly if we apply species composition or other diversity metrics for an assessment or monitoring of the ecosystem state or human pressures and impacts. In our study, we revealed a new cryptic species of aphid-hunting wasp that is virtually indistinguishable from a well-known one by morphology. These two species can be easily segregated using molecular characters, and presumably they differ also by nesting habitat. Upon exploring the mitotype diversity of the aphid-hunting wasp, Diodontus tristis, we revealed specimens with highly divergent mitotypes from two localities in Lithuania and nesting in clayey substrate, while the specimens with typical mitotypes were found nesting in sandy sites. The comparison of inter- and intra-specific distances and application of delimitation algorithms supported the species status of the clay-nesting populations. Using a set of DNA markers that included complete or partial sequences of six mitochondrial genes, three markers of ribosomal operon, two homeobox genes, and four other nuclear genes, we clarified the phylogenetic relationships of the new cryptic species. The endosymbiotic bacteria infestation was checked, considering the option that the divergent populations may represent clades isolated by Wolbachia infection; however, it did not demonstrate any specificity. We found only subtle morphological differences in the new clay-nesting species, D. argillicola sp. nov.; the discriminant analysis of morphometric measurements did not reliably segregate it as well. Thus, we provide the molecular characters of the cryptic species, which allow confident identification, its phylogenetic position within the genus, and an updated identification key for the D. tristis species group.

A gynandromorph is an organism combining both female- and male-type tissues. While the vast majority of studies have described the morphology of gynandromorphs, their sexual behaviours remain under-explored. We studied a predominantly bilateral gynandromorph specimen of the predatory wasp Discoelius dufourii (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Zethinae) reared from a trap-nest. In addition to describing the morphology, we explored the gynandromorph's response to a conspecific female, comparing it with the behavioural interactions between normal males and females of D. dufourii and the phylogenetically related D. zonalis. For most specific behavioural elements, males of both Discoelius species exhibited a greater frequency and a higher probability of occurrences of the behaviour than did females. However, aggression and plopping behaviours were prevalent in females. The gynandromorphic specimen demonstrated behavioural activities similar to those of a male, including a relatively frequent mate body antennation and an attempt to mount a female. However, it approached the female less frequently in comparison to conspecific normal males, and it did not demonstrate substrate antennation and jumping, typical of Discoelius male mating behaviour. Based on the parameters of the nest cell, the probability of the development of the gynandromorphic specimen from an unfertilized (male) egg was higher than the probability of development from a fertilized (female) egg.

One particular challenge in reducing the loss of biodiversity by 2010, as agreed on at the Earth Summit in 2002, is to assign conservation tasks to geographic or administrative entities (e.g., countries or regions) on different geographical scales. To identify conservation tasks, it is imperative to determine the importance of a specific area for the global survival of a species. So far, these national or subnational responsibilities for the conservation of species have been included differently in methods prioritizing conservation. We reviewed how 12 European and 3 non-European methods determined national conservation responsibilities and evaluated the international importance of a biological population. Different countries used different methodologies, which made a direct comparison of assessments of national responsibilities among countries extremely difficult. Differences existed in the importance criteria used. Criteria included population decline, range reduction, rarity status, degree of isolation of a population, endemism, proportional distribution, and geographic location. To increase comparability, it is imperative to develop criteria for which data are generally available and to standardize the methodology among countries. A standardized method would allow conservation decisions to be based on the conservation status of a species and on the responsibility of a geographic or administrative entity for the survival of a species. We suggest that such a method should use a scalable index of proportional distribution, taxonomic status, and the distribution pattern of a taxon or species as key elements. Such a method would allow for the creation of hierarchical lists and would be highly relevant for parts of the world with multiple political jurisdictions or state unions and for nations with regional governmental structures. Conservation priorities could then be reasonably set by combining national responsibility assessments with the international conservation status of a species.

Two new species of Diodontus Curtis, 1834 (Hymenoptera: Pemphredonidae) are described. Diodontus polytylus Budrys new species is widespread in North Africa, from Libya and Chad to Morocco, as well as in southern Spain and Portugal. Diodontus guichardi Budrys new species was found in several localities in Morocco. The new species have small differences in their morphology; however, they can be easily separated using molecular characters. Comparison of 17 molecular markers has revealed that the highest evolutionary divergence is observed in mitochondrial gene ND6 and internal transcribed spacer ITS2. The variable regions of the nuclear rDNA genes 18S and 28S demonstrated the lowest evolutionary divergence; thus they were of the least use for species identification. The most coherent reconstruction of phylogeny, in comparison to other groups of markers, was obtained using exons of nuclear protein-coding genes. A provisional key to the species of D. minutus (Fabricius, 1793) species group of the Mediterranean Region is presented.

The stinging pattern of a predatory wasp is a behavioural trait, affecting the possible evolutionary changes of its niche, e.g. widening or shifting the prey spectrum. We tested the hypothesis that the ability of a predator to adjust its handling effort to the size of prey is a species-specific trait, the parameters of which depend on the size and size range of the exploited prey. We found that wasps better adjust their stinging effort to prey size if they hunt relatively larger or relatively more variable prey. This adaptability differs amongst neighbouring phylogenetic lineages. We presume that evolution of prey-handling behaviour may result in two types of tactics: the first, an application of precise techniques for optimal prey immobilization, little dependent on prey size and typical of specialists. The second tactic typical of generalists is a less precise handling, causing more general damage to the prey with an intensity dependent on its size.