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We aimed to examine the effects of selenium on the tolerance of radish plants CV. Cherri Belle under cadmium phytotoxicity. The biomass accumulation was drastically decreased under Cd toxicity and the supplementary Se maintained the biomass acquisition under Cd pressure. The chlorophyll index (SPAD), PSII efficiency (Fv/Fm), and PSII quantum yield (ΦPSII) were declined in response to Cd treatment, while Se nutrition improved these variables in a dose-dependent manner. The highest H 2 O 2 and MDA contents were observed in the plants fed with 10 mg −1  L Cd. The Cd stress resulted in a considerable decline in the activities of GPX, CAT, and APX antioxidant enzymes, while Se supplementation increased their activities in the Cd-treated plants. Based on the mineral analyses, no Cd was traced in the control plants, while the Cd concentration in both roots and leaves of the Cd-stressed radish plants increased with increasing the supplemented Cd levels. Compared with plants solely treated with 10 mg L −1 Cd, Se nutrition declined the Cd absorption in roots and in leaves. The concentration of evaluated micronutrients including Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn tended to decrease in the Cd-imposed plants in comparison with control plants. Se nutrition of both stressed and non-stressed radish plants increased the concentrations of the studied microelements, except for Zn in which the individual use of Se led to a decrease in the Zn content. Significant positive and negative correlation values were found among the studied traits and the principle component analysis (PCA) biplot and Ward dendrogram confirmed the results of the correlation analysis. Se proved to be efficient in the alleviation of Cd-triggered deleterious effects by improving biomass acquisition, enhancing chlorophyll biosynthesis and fluorescence, and increasing micronutrient uptake in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the Se alleviation mechanism under Cd stress was also connected with the activation of enzymatic antioxidative protection system as well as with decreasing Cd uptake, transport, and distribution in radish leaves. Altogether, our research strongly suggests the implementation of Se in the growth medium to enhance the tolerance of radish plants under Cd stress.

Background A study on photosynthetic and enzyme activity changes and mineral content in lettuce under cadmium stress has been conducted in a greenhouse, utilizing the modulated effect of zinc (Zn) application in the nutrient solution on lettuce. Zn is a micronutrient that plays an essential role in various critical plant processes. Accordingly, three concentrations of Zn (0.022, 5, and 10 mg L − 1 ) were applied to hydroponically grown lettuce ( Lactuca sativa L. cv. Ferdos) under three concentrations of Cd toxicity (0, 2.5, and 5 mg L − 1 ). Results The results showed that along with increasing concentrations of zinc in the nutrient solution, growth traits such as plant performance, chlorophyll index (SPAD), minimum fluorescence ( F0 ), leaf zinc content (Zn), leaf and root iron (Fe) content, manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), and cadmium increased as well. The maximum amounts of chlorophyll a (33.9 mg g − 1 FW), chlorophyll b (17.3 mg g − 1 FW), carotenoids (10.7 mg g − 1 FW), maximum fluorescence ( Fm ) (7.1), and variable fluorescence ( Fv ) (3.47) were observed in the treatment with Zn without Cd. Along with an increase in Cd concentration in the nutrient solution, the maximum amounts of leaf proline (5.93 mmol g − 1 FW), malondialdehyde (MDA) (0.96 μm g − 1 FW), hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) (22.1 μm g − 1 FW), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) (90.3 Unit mg − 1 protein) were recorded in lettuce treated with 5 mg L − 1 of Cd without Zn. Additionally, the maximum activity of leaf guaiacol peroxidase (6.46 Unit mg − 1 protein) was obtained with the application of Cd at a 5 mg L − 1 concentration. Conclusions In general, an increase in Zn concentration in the nutrient solution decreased the absorption and toxicity of Cd in lettuce leaves, as demonstrated in most of the measured traits. These findings suggest that supplementing hydroponic nutrient solutions with zinc can mitigate the detrimental effects of cadmium toxicity on lettuce growth and physiological processes, offering a promising strategy to enhance crop productivity and food safety in cadmium-contaminated environments.

In order to evaluate micro and macronutrient balance in vegetable growth, a study on greenness, yield, nutritional value, as well as biochemical status in spinach, has been conducted in a greenhouse, utilising the different concentrations of zinc (Zn) and potassium (K) in the nutrient solution. So, three concentrations of Zn (0.22, 5, and 10 mg L − 1 ) and K (39, 78, and 117 mg L − 1 ) were applied to hydroponically grown spinach ( Spinacia oleracea cv. Virofly) through a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete design with three replications. The results showed that along with increasing concentrations of Zn and K in a nutrient solution, chlorophyll index and plant performance were increased although Zn showed more influence than K. The maximum plant yield was observed at 117 mg L − 1 of K in combination with both concentrations of Zn (5 and 10 mg L − 1 ). Along with an increase in Zn and K concentrations, the amount of nutrients including Na, Fe, Cu, Ca, Mn, and Mg decreased compared to the control level of Zn and K in nutrient solution except for Zn and K, which increased due to the Zn and K, respectively. Increased levels of Zn and K caused to decrease in malondialdehyde (MDA) content by 51% and 34%, respectively. Hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) was decreased also by 29% and 14% at 10 and 117 mg L − 1 concentration of Zn and K while higher levels of Zn and K in the nutrient solution, increased protein content by 1.4 and 1.2 folded compared to the control plants. The maximum activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was recorded in spinach treated with 10 mg L − 1 of Zn in combination independent to the K concentrations. The activity of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) was also affected by Zn as it showed up to 2.1 folded increment at 10 mg L − 1 Zn compared to the 0.22 mg L − 1 concentration. In general, an increase in Zn and K concentration in the nutrient solution decreased the absorption of measured nutrients except for Zn and K in spinach leaves. The effect of increased levels of Zn was more obvious than that of potassium in qualitative and biochemical traits of spinach specially at 5 mg L − 1 concentration. These findings suggest that supplementing hydroponic nutrient solutions with 5 mg L − 1 Zn in combination with 78 mg L − 1 K can lead to the better quality and tolerance of the plant, offering a promising strategy to enhance crop productivity and nutritional value in hydroponically cultivated spinach.

Understanding the physiological and biochemical responses of Beta vulgaris to cadmium toxicity and iron supplementation is crucial for optimizing plant performance under heavy metal contamination scenarios. However, knowledge about how varying iron concentrations mediate cadmium-induced stress responses in sugar beet remains limited. We investigated morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses of B. vulgaris exposed to different cadmium concentrations (0, 1, and 2 mg L⁻¹) and iron levels (2.5, 5, and 7.5 mg L⁻¹) under hydroponic conditions through a factorial experiment using completely randomized design with three replications. Cadmium concentration and iron supplementation significantly influenced all measured parameters ( p  ≤ 0.01). Plants receiving 7.5 mg L⁻¹ Fe consistently demonstrated superior stress tolerance, maintaining higher growth performance, better mineral nutrition, stronger antioxidant defenses, and more effective metabolic regulation under 2 mg L⁻¹ Cd stress compared to control iron levels (2.5 mg L⁻¹). Specifically, higher iron supplementation restored leaf number, leaf area, chlorophyll content, and yield to near-control levels, while also reducing cadmium accumulation in both roots and shoots. Oxidative stress mitigation was also more pronounced with 7.5 mg L⁻¹ Fe treatment, with better restoration of H₂O₂ and malondialdehyde levels to control ranges, suggesting more efficient antioxidant defense mechanisms. Mineral nutrition patterns also differed markedly, with higher iron levels improving Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn concentrations while simultaneously reducing cadmium uptake and translocation. We conclude that iron supplementation significantly influences B. vulgaris resilience to cadmium toxicity, with 7.5 mg L⁻¹ Fe emerging as the optimal concentration for cadmium stress mitigation. Relative differences in stress response mechanisms between iron treatments provide insights for phytoremediation strategies, while the quantitative stress response patterns identified offer valuable parameters for optimizing sugar beet cultivation in cadmium-contaminated environments.

Background Boron (B) is a micronutrient, but excessive levels can cause phytotoxicity, impaired growth, and reduced photosynthesis. B toxicity arises from over-fertilization, high soil B levels, or irrigation with B-rich water. Conversely, silicon (Si) is recognized as an element that mitigates stress and alleviates the toxic effects of certain nutrients. In this study, to evaluate the effect of different concentrations of Si on maize under boron stress conditions, a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design was conducted with three replications in a hydroponic system. The experiment utilized a nutrient solution for maize var. Merit that contained three different boron (B) concentrations (0.5, 2, and 4 mg L −1 ) and three Si concentrations (0, 28, and 56 mg L −1 ). Results Our findings unveiled that exogenous application of B resulted in a substantial escalation of B concentration in maize leaves. Furthermore, B exposure elicited a significant diminution in fresh and dry plant biomass, chlorophyll index, chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), carotenoids, and membrane stability index (MSI). As the B concentration augmented, malondialdehyde (MDA) content and catalase (CAT) enzyme activity exhibited a concomitant increment. Conversely, the supplementation of Si facilitated an amelioration in plant fresh and dry weight, total carbohydrate, and total soluble protein. Moreover, the elevated activity of antioxidant enzymes culminated in a decrement in hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) and MDA content. In addition, the combined influence of Si and B had a statistically significant impact on the leaf chlorophyll index, total chlorophyll (a + b) content, Si and B accumulation levels, as well as the enzymatic activities of guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and H 2 O 2 levels. These unique findings indicated the detrimental impact of B toxicity on various physiological and biochemical attributes of maize, while highlighting the potential of Si supplementation in mitigating the deleterious effects through modulation of antioxidant machinery and biomolecule synthesis. Conclusions This study highlights the potential of Si supplementation in alleviating the deleterious effects of B toxicity in maize. Increased Si consumption mitigated chlorophyll degradation under B toxicity, but it also caused a significant reduction in the concentrations of essential micronutrients iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn). While Si supplementation shows promise in counteracting B toxicity, the observed decrease in Fe, Cu, and Zn concentrations warrants further investigation to optimize this approach and maintain overall plant nutritional status.

Salinity is one of the critical environmental factors that decreases the water availability and induces nutritional imbalance in crops. In order to study the effect of calcium nitrate [(Ca(NO3)2] in the nutrient solution under salinity conditions, an experiment was designed with different salinity (0, 50, and 100 mM) and Ca(NO3)2 (2, 3, and 4 mM) levels on Cucurbita pepo (zucchini). Based on the results, an increase in the salinity from 0 to 100 mM caused a decrease in the leaf potassium and calcium concentration, whereas the iron, magnesium and zinc concentrations increased. The most effective Ca(NO3)2 level in increasing the nutritional quality and yield of zucchini was 3 and 4 mM. Salinity at 50 and 100 mM significantly increased the leaf sodium concentration and leaf area as well as the leaf number per plant, while the application of both Ca(NO3)2 levels modulated the harmful effects of salinity. The amount of malondialdehyde (MDA), proline and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as well as the catalase (CAT) activity increased under the severe salinity conditions, whereas the application of 4 mM Ca(NO3)2 had the potential of removing the negative effects of severe salinity. The catalase activity increased along with the increase in the Ca(NO3)2 concentration, which was independent from the salinity level. However, the amount of proline, MDA and H2O2 decreased in plants fed with 3 and 4 mM Ca(NO3)2 compared to the control in the presence of salinity. These findings suggest that both the 3 and 4 mM concentrations of Ca(NO3)2 under 50 mM salinity could be used to improve the zucchini performance by maintaining the ion homeostasis and inducing the antioxidant defence system.

Grapefruit mint, Mentha suaveolens × M. piperita, belonging to the Lamiaceae family, is an important medicinal plant with applications in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, food, and nutraceutical industries. Environmental factors such as cold, salinity, and water deficit significantly impact the quantity and quality of the active compounds of medicinal plants. To examine the effects of drought stress and β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) as an elicitor on the biochemical characteristics and essential oil (EO) profile of grapefruit mint, a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design (CRD) with two factor and three replications under greenhouse conditions. The first factor included field moisture capacity (FC) as the control (100% FC), mild (75% FC), moderate (55% FC), and severe water deficit stress (35% FC), while the second factor consisted of 0 (control plants without BABA), 0.8, 1.6, and 2.4 mM of BABA foliar application. Water stress and BABA application significantly affected the EO content and composition of grapefruit mint. The highest content of EO was observed in mild drought stress and BABA spraying at 1.6 to 2.4 mM, which increased by about 140% compared with the control condition. The EO components were identified using GC-FID and GC-MS analysis. Linalool (33.7–47.3%) and linalool acetate (31.2–52%) were the most abundant compounds. The highest content of linalool acetate was observed in severe drought stress (35% FC) with foliar application of BABA (1.6 mM), which increased by 33.86% compared with the control condition. However, the highest content of linalool was observed under normal irrigation with foliar application of 0.8 to 1.6 mM BABA. Based on the results, severe drought stress reduced the total chlorophyll and carotenoids by 81.76 and 64.6% compared with the control condition, respectively. Water stress and the foliar application of BABA significantly affected the activity of antioxidant enzymes (ascorbate peroxidase, APX; guaiacol peroxides, GPX; and superoxide dismutase, SOD). The application of 1.6 mM BABA significantly increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes under water stress conditions. Finally, our results showed that the application of BABA (mainly at 1.6 mM) can improve the grapefruit mint yield and EO profile under water stress conditions.

The present study examined the effects of foliar spray of selenium nanoparticles (0, 10 and 20 mg/L) on the yield, phytochemicals and essential oil content and composition of pineapple mint (Mentha suaveolens Ehrh.) under salinity stress (0, 30, 60 and 90 mM NaCl). Obtained results demonstrated that severe salinity stress reduced the fresh weight (FW) and plant height (PH) by 16.40% and 19.10%, respectively compared with normal growth condition. On the other hands, under sever salinity stress relative water content (RWC) and chlorophyll index were reduced by 18.05% and 3.50%, respectively. Interestingly, selenium nanoparticles (Se-NPs; 10 mg/L) application improved the pineapple mint growth. Based on GC-FID and GC-MS analysis, 19 compounds were identified in pineapple mint essential oil. Foliar application of Se-NPs and salinity did not change the essential oil content of pineapple mint, however, the essential oil compounds were significantly affected by salinity and Se-NPs- applications. Foliar application of Se-NPs- had a significant effect on piperitenone oxide, limonene, jasmone, viridiflorol and β-myrsene under different salinity levels. The highest percentage of piperitenone oxide (79.4%) as the major essential oil component was recorded in the no salinity treatment by applying 10 mg/L of nanoparticle. Interestingly, application of 10 mg L−1 Se-NPs- under 60 mM NaCl increased the piperitenone oxide content by 9.1% compared with non-sprayed plants. Finally, the obtained results demonstrated that foliar application of Se-NPs (10 mg L−1) can improve the pineapple mint growth and secondary metabolites profile under saline conditions.

Zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) are essential micronutrients for the plant’s growth, development, and metabolism, but in high concentrations, the elements disrupt normal metabolic processes. The present study investigated the effects of different concentrations (added to a Hogland-based solution) of zinc (control, 5, 10 mg L−1 ZnSO4) and copper (control, 0.1, 0.2 mg L−1 CuSO4) on the growth characteristics and biochemical indices of summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L.). Compared with control, a single application of Cu or Zn at both concentrations significantly declined fruit yield, growth traits, pigments content, and high content of these minerals and values of stress-related indices. Increased Cu concentration in the nutritional solutions reduced the activity of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and guaiacol peroxidase (GPX). Copper at high concentrations intensified ROS production, aggravated oxidative stresses, and decreased the plant yield and productivity. Nonetheless, combining Cu and Zn could alleviate stress intensity by boosting antioxidant enzymes, redox regulation, and a resultant diminishment in the content of H2O2, proline, malondialdehyde, and minerals. The obtained results corroborate that the co-application of zinc in Cu-contaminated areas can improve the plant’s economic yield and physiological parameters by hindering copper toxicity and enhancing the photosynthetic capacity.

Grapefruit mint, Mentha suaveolens × M. piperita, belonging to the Lamiaceae family, is an important medicinal plant with applications in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, food, and nutraceutical industries. Environmental factors such as cold, salinity, and water deficit significantly impact the quantity and quality of the active compounds of medicinal plants. To examine the effects of drought stress and β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) as an elicitor on the biochemical characteristics and essential oil (EO) profile of grapefruit mint, a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design (CRD) with two factor and three replications under greenhouse conditions. The first factor included field moisture capacity (FC) as the control (100% FC), mild (75% FC), moderate (55% FC), and severe water deficit stress (35% FC), while the second factor consisted of 0 (control plants without BABA), 0.8, 1.6, and 2.4 mM of BABA foliar application. Water stress and BABA application significantly affected the EO content and composition of grapefruit mint. The highest content of EO was observed in mild drought stress and BABA spraying at 1.6 to 2.4 mM, which increased by about 140% compared with the control condition. The EO components were identified using GC-FID and GC-MS analysis. Linalool (33.7–47.3%) and linalool acetate (31.2–52%) were the most abundant compounds. The highest content of linalool acetate was observed in severe drought stress (35% FC) with foliar application of BABA (1.6 mM), which increased by 33.86% compared with the control condition. However, the highest content of linalool was observed under normal irrigation with foliar application of 0.8 to 1.6 mM BABA. Based on the results, severe drought stress reduced the total chlorophyll and carotenoids by 81.76 and 64.6% compared with the control condition, respectively. Water stress and the foliar application of BABA significantly affected the activity of antioxidant enzymes (ascorbate peroxidase, APX; guaiacol peroxides, GPX; and superoxide dismutase, SOD). The application of 1.6 mM BABA significantly increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes under water stress conditions. Finally, our results showed that the application of BABA (mainly at 1.6 mM) can improve the grapefruit mint yield and EO profile under water stress conditions.