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African swine fever (ASF) is a notifiable viral disease of pigs and wild boars that could lead to serious economic losses for the entire European pork industry. As no effective treatment or vaccination is available, disease prevention and control rely on strictly enforced biosecurity measures tailored to the specific risk factors of ASF introduction within domestic pig populations. Here, we present a review addressing the risk factors associated with different European pig farming systems in the context of the actual epidemiological scenario. A list of keywords was combined into a Boolean query, “African swine fever” AND (“Risk factors” OR “Transmission” OR “Spread” OR “Pig farming” OR “Pigs” OR “Wild boars”); was run on 4 databases; and resulted in 52 documents of interest being reviewed. Based on our review, each farming system has its own peculiar risk factors: commercial farms, where best practices are already in place, may suffer from unintentional breaches in biosecurity, while backyard and outdoor farms may suffer from poor ASF awareness, sociocultural factors, and contact with wild boars. In the literature selected for our review, human-related activities and behaviours are presented as the main risks, but we also stress the need to implement biosecurity measures also tailored to risks factors that are specific for the different pig farming practices in the European Union (EU).

West Nile virus (WNV) transmission was much greater in 2018 than in previous seasons in Europe. Focusing on Emilia-Romagna region (northern Italy), we analyzed detailed entomological and epidemiological data collected in 2013-2018 to quantitatively assess environmental drivers of transmission and explore hypotheses to better understand why the 2018 epidemiological season was substantially different than the previous seasons. In particular, in 2018 WNV was detected at least two weeks before the observed circulation in 2013-2017 and in a larger number of mosquito pools. Transmission resulted in 100 neuroinvasive human cases in the region, more than the total number of cases recorded between 2013 and 2017. We used temperature-driven mathematical models calibrated through a Bayesian approach to simulate mosquito population dynamics and WNV infection rates in the avian population. We then estimated the human transmission risk as the probability, for a person living in the study area, of being bitten by an infectious mosquito in a given week. Finally, we translated such risk into reported WNV human infections. The estimated prevalence of WNV in the mosquito and avian populations were significantly higher in 2018 with respect to 2013-2017 seasons, especially in the eastern part of the region. Furthermore, peak avian prevalence was estimated to have occurred earlier, corresponding to a steeper decline towards the end of summer. The high mosquito prevalence resulted in a much greater predicted risk for human transmission in 2018, which was estimated to be up to eight times higher than previous seasons. We hypothesized, on the basis of our modelling results, that such greater WNV circulation might be partially explained by exceptionally high spring temperatures, which have likely helped to amplify WNV transmission at the beginning of the 2018 season.

Summary Background The loss of a normal airway is devastating. Attempts to replace large airways have met with serious problems. Prerequisites for a tissue-engineered replacement are a suitable matrix, cells, ideal mechanical properties, and the absence of antigenicity. We aimed to bioengineer tubular tracheal matrices, using a tissue-engineering protocol, and to assess the application of this technology in a patient with end-stage airway disease. Methods We removed cells and MHC antigens from a human donor trachea, which was then readily colonised by epithelial cells and mesenchymal stem-cell-derived chondrocytes that had been cultured from cells taken from the recipient (a 30-year old woman with end-stage bronchomalacia). This graft was then used to replace the recipient's left main bronchus. Findings The graft immediately provided the recipient with a functional airway, improved her quality of life, and had a normal appearance and mechanical properties at 4 months. The patient had no anti-donor antibodies and was not on immunosuppressive drugs. Interpretation The results show that we can produce a cellular, tissue-engineered airway with mechanical properties that allow normal functioning, and which is free from the risks of rejection. The findings suggest that autologous cells combined with appropriate biomaterials might provide successful treatment for patients with serious clinical disorders. Funding Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria, Spain; Charles Courtenay-Cowlin Fund, University of Bristol; UK Arthritis Research Campaign; and the James Tudor Foundation.

African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most severe diseases of pigs and has a drastic impact on pig industry. Wild boar populations play the role of ASF genotype II virus epidemiological reservoir. Disease surveillance in wild boar is carried out either by testing all the wild boar found sick or dead for virus detection (passive surveillance) or by testing for virus (and antibodies) all hunted wild boar (active surveillance). When virus prevalence and wild boar density are low as it happens close to eradication, the question on which kind of surveillance is more efficient in detecting the virus is still open. We built a simulation model to mimic the evolution of the host-parasite interaction in the European wild boar and to assess the efficiency of different surveillance strategies. We constructed a deterministic SIR model, which estimated the probability to detect the virus during the 8 years following its introduction, using both passive and active surveillance. Overall, passive surveillance provided a much larger number of ASF detections than active surveillance during the first year. During subsequent years, both active and passive surveillance exhibited a decrease in their probability to detect ASF. Such decrease, though, was more pronounced for passive surveillance. Under the assumption of 50% of carcasses detection, active surveillance became the best detection method when the endemic disease prevalence was lower than 1.5%, when hunting rate was >60% and when population density was lower than 0.1 individuals/km2. In such a situation, though, the absolute probability to detect the disease was very low with both methods, and finding almost every carcass is the only way to ensure virus detection. The sensitivity analysis shows that carcass search effort is the sole parameter that increases proportionally the chance of ASF virus detection. Therefore, an effort should be made to promote active search of dead wild boar also in endemic areas, since reporting wild boar carcasses is crucial to understand the epidemiological situation in any of the different phases of ASF infection at any wild boar density.

African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most severe suid diseases, impacting the pig industry and wild suid populations. Once an ASF vaccine is available, identifying a sufficient density of vaccination fields will be crucial to achieve eradication success. In 2020–2023, we live-trapped and monitored 27 wild boars in different areas of Lithuania, in which the wild boars were fed at artificial stations. We built a simulation study to estimate the probability of a successful ASF vaccination as a function of different eco-epidemiological factors. The average 32-day home range size across all individuals was 16.2 km2 (SD = 16.9). The wild boars made frequent visits of short durations to the feeding sites rather than long visits interposed by long periods of absence. A feeding site density of 0.5/km2 corresponded to an expected vaccination rate of only 20%. The vaccination probability increased to about 75% when the feeding site density was 1.0/km2. Our results suggest that at least one vaccination field/km2 should be used when planning an ASF vaccination campaign to ensure that everyone in the population has at least 5–10 vaccination sites available inside the home range. Similar studies should be conducted in the other ecological contexts in which ASF is present today or will be present in the future, with the objective being to estimate a context-specific relationship between wild boar movement patterns and an optimal vaccination strategy.

Foot and Mouth disease (FMD) transmission is strongly related to the distribution and density of FMD-susceptible animals. In this study, we applied a model to simulate the spread of FMD in three Italian regions with different livestock demographics (densely, medium, and sparsely populated) in order to assess the cost effectiveness of the disease control options within the framework of the Italian contingency plan. The results of the simulations showed that stamping-out was sufficient to control the outbreak in the sparsely and medium populated areas whereas, in densely populated areas, only vaccinations could effectively control an outbreak. We also estimated the economic resources needed for the adoption of different control strategies, considering livestock indemnity, cleaning, disinfection and disposal, surveillance, vaccination and personnel costs. The results obtained showed that indemnity due to culling had the highest impact on the costs in all scenarios and vaccination resulted in the most cost-effective option to apply in densely populated livestock areas. The results of this study can be a useful aid to Competent Authorities in the preparation of contingency plans against FMD.

Influenza A virus (AIV) circulation was investigated in the Lombardy region, during 2022–2024, in wild ducks (through hunting and sampling of faecal samples within natural parks) and wild birds found dead. Samples were analysed through real-time RT-PCRs for Influenza A virus, H5 and H7. Whole genome sequencing was performed on AIV-positive samples. Screening of 3497 hunted Anatidae revealed a total of 184 positive samples. Complete sequencing of 136 samples highlighted the presence of 21 different subtypes ranging from H1N1 to H12N5. The H5N1 HPAIV (high pathogenic AIV) subtype, clade 2.3.4.4b, was the most common during the 2022–2023 winter season (31.8%), while H5 LPAI (low pathogenic AIV) strains were the most prevalent (28.6%) in the 2023–2024 season. The molecular survey on wild birds found dead (n = 481) showed two positive buzzards (14%, 2/14), one grey heron (5.5%, 1/18) and one kestrel (7.6%, 1/13). Regarding the order of Charadriiformes, the dead gulls sampled in 2022 (17 birds) were all negative, whereas 85 out of 167 (51%) individuals were positive in 2023. All positives were caused by an H5N1 HPAIV clade 2.3.4.4b virus belonging to genotype BB. All the faecal samples (1699) received from passive surveillance in nature parks were analysed for AIV with negative results.

African swine fever (ASF) is a severe hemorrhagic disease of suids caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV). In 2023, the introduction of genotype II ASFV into Lombardy was a cause for serious concern; the region is home to approximately 50% of the national pig population and is of economic importance to the processing industry of the entire country. Since then, two ASF epidemics have resulted in a total of 30 outbreaks in domestic pigs in the same areas of Lombardy, where the disease is endemic in wild boars. The results of the control activities conducted in the affected areas seem to indicate the establishment of self-sustaining infection cycles in the wild boar population with spillover and spillback events occurring between wild boars and domestic pigs. This manuscript describes some epidemiological features of the ASF epidemics in Lombardy with the aim of providing useful information to combat the disease.

African swine fever (ASF) is a severe viral disease characterized by high lethality in suids and caused by the African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV). The ASF genotype I virus was introduced to Europe in 1957, marking the onset of the first European epidemic wave. In 2007, ASFV genotype II was detected in Georgia, affecting domestic pigs and wild boars before spreading to various European and extra-European countries, including Italy. The first case of ASFV in Italy was documented on 7 January 2022, in a wild boar in the Piedmont region. Since then, several ASFV-positive wild boar carcasses have been identified in the Piedmont and Liguria regions. By June 2023, ASFV had spread to Lombardy, one of the major pig-producing regions in northern Italy; the virus was first detected in early summer in wild boar carcasses. Two months later, it was diagnosed in a commercial pig farm as a consequence of the disease’s spread amongst wild boars and an increase in the viral environmental load. This report aims to describe the features of ASFV domestic pig outbreaks that occurred in the Zinasco municipality (Lombardy) and the joint efforts to mitigate potential direct and indirect economic impacts on the Italian and global pig industry. The epidemiological investigation and the measures implemented, which were all performed according to national and European regulations, as well as exceptional ad hoc measures aimed at protecting the pig industry, are described in order to provide a practical and effective approach to combating ASF.

During the past decade, African swine fever (ASF) has spread from the Caucasus region to eastern European Union countries affecting domestic pig and wild boar populations. In order to avert ASF spread, mitigation measures targeting both populations have been established. However, despite these efforts, ASF has been reported in thirteen different countries (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Moldova, Czech Republic, and Romania). In the absence of an effective vaccine or treatment to ASF, introduction and spread of ASF onto domestic pig farms can only be prevented by strict compliance to control measures. This study systematically reviewed available measures to prevent the spread of ASF in the EU domestic pig sector distinguishing between commercial, non-commercial, and outdoor farms. The search was performed in PubMed and using a common browser. A total of 52 documents were selected for the final review process, which included scientific articles, reports, EU documents and official recommendations, among others. From this literature review, 37 measures were identified as preventive measures for the introduction and spread of ASF. Subsequently, these measures were assessed by ASF experts for their relevance in the mitigation of ASF spread on the three mentioned types of farms. All experts agreed that some of the important preventive measures for all three types of farms were: the identification of animals and farm records; strict enforcement of the ban on swill feeding; and containment of pigs, so as to not allow direct or indirect pig–pig and/or pig–wild boar contacts. Other important preventive measures for all farms were education of farmers, workers, and operators; no contact between farmers and farm staff and external pigs; appropriate removal of carcasses, slaughter residues, and food waste; proper disposal of manure and dead animals, and abstaining from hunting activities during the previous 48 h (allowing a 48 h interval between hunting and being in contact with domestic pigs). Finally, all experts identified that the important preventive measures for non-commercial and outdoor farms is to improve access of those farms to veterinarians and health services.