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Factors associated with the habitat suitability of northern red muntjac ( ) especially outside protected areas in the human-dominated landscape are still lacking. Fine-scale environmental variables can influence the habitat suitability of the animals. This study aimed to explore the different eco-geographic fine-scale variables for the distribution of the northern red muntjac; and predict suitable habitats using the maximum entropy (Maxent) model in the Chitwan Annapurna landscape (CHAL). The presence points of the northern red muntjac (n = 265) were collected between 2018 to 2021 using 150 transects of various lengths in four blocks. Density-based occurrence points rarify and performance-based variable selection were applied to improve the output of the model. The model was evaluated based on the area under the curve (AUC) value of operator characteristic (ROC) and analyzed on the basis of the response curve, the relative importance of variables, Jackknife test and suitability map. Results indicated the model was statistically satisfactory (mean AUC > 0.75). The distance to the nearest cropland was the most contributed variable followed by Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI), distance to developed/settlement area and distance to grassland that explained suitability of Northern red muntjac. The species distribution model predicted 6.52% highly suitable and 23.77% suitable area for northern red muntjac. Therefore, this area is important for the muntjac and provides a possible alternative habitat for other wild animals outside the protected areas. Our research suggests that human dominated landscape should be prioritized in management plans for the conservation of muntjac.

Invasive and alien plant species (IAPS) are considered as major threats to native biodiversity because IAPS alter ecosystem structure and their functions. We assessed the association of four major IAPS ( , and ) and the abundance of wild ungulates in Barandabhar Corridor Forest (BCF), Chitwan, Nepal. We collected data on the presence of wild ungulates in IAPS invaded habitats through direct observation and sign surveys. Our study showed that the cover of was significantly high in Sal forest (Prominence value PV = 73.23) followed by riverine forest (PV = 40.5) and grassland (PV = 37.7) whereas was high in grasslands (PV = 22.9). Similarly, was significantly high in Sal forest (PV =141.6%), and was high in mixed forest (PV = 22.6). It was found that there was a significant negative association of IAPS (p = 0.002) with wild ungulates. The abundances of deer and wild pigs were more in the buffer zone than in the non-buffer zone. The abundance of deer decreased with increasing cover of , , and (p = 0.002). Similarly, the abundance of wild pigs decreased with increasing cover of and . IAPS were not uniformly distributed in different habitats and abundances of wild ungulates were less in IAPS invaded habitats. Hence, it is important to initiate management plans to control IAPS spread to avoid their negative impacts on wild ungulate population such as deer and wild pigs.

Barandabhar Corridor Forest (BCF), the biologically functional corridor, is surrounded by the large human settlements that exploit the corridor where large mammals such as tigers, leopards and their prey such as ungulates, primates, and rhinoceros occur. This study aimed to evaluate major determinants that affect the distribution of large mammals in BCF, Chitwan, Nepal that connects the biologically significant Chitwan National Park with the Mahabharat range. The status and distribution of large mammals along the habitat and disturbance gradients were determined by using 29 line transects (mean length = 4.59 ± 0.38 km) that covered a linear distance of 133.13 km. The chital were the most abundant mammals (density per km (D) = 8.9095 ± 1.4570 and encounter rate per km (ER) = 1.49) followed by rhesus monkey (D = 38.896 ± 16.013, ER = 0.28), wild boar (D = 14.814 ± 3.57, ER = 0.62), northern red muntjac (D = 9.6566 ± 2.9514, ER = 0.62) and sambar (D = 5.392 ± 2.319, ER = 0.38). Similarly, the sign encounter rate of tiger and leopard was 0.435 and 0.503 respectively. Habitat types, human disturbances, and coverage of invasive and alien plant species (IAPs) played a key role in the distribution of large mammals. The occurrence of mammals was low nearer to the settlements and roads and coverage of IAPs and more nearer to the water resources. However, degradation of foraging grounds such as grasslands by succession and invasion of alien plant species added more threats to the survival of large mammals. Therefore, such a situation can be improved through the scientific management of forests and grasslands.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0315307.].

Understanding species distributions and factors influencing them are important for conservation, particularly for species occurring in human-dominated areas. The Indian crested porcupine ( Hystrix indica ; hereafter porcupine) is distributed southeast and central Asia, however, the porcupine occurrence and habitat use is poorly understood in the area. We deployed cameras at 154 sites for 21 days (3234 trap nights) during December 2022–March 2023 in the human-dominated landscape of Parsa-Koshi Complex (PKC), Madesh Province, Nepal. We used single season single species occupancy model to estimate the relationship of selected covariates with porcupine occupancy. We identified moderate occupancy [0.321 ± 0.079 (SD)] and detection probability [0.315 ± 0.076 (SD)] of porcupines. Although porcupine occurrence was greater in protected area than in outside protected areas, occupancy was positively associated with area of farmland (1.531 ± 1.703) and human presence (0.459 ± 0.531), while it declined with increasing forest canopy cover (-0.86 ± 0.363). The positive effects of agricultural areas and human presence demonstrate the adaptability of porcupines to humans and the potential for continued conflicts. Based on these baseline data, policy makers and wildlife managers can gain insight into the pattern of porcupine occurrence and aid targeted conservation strategies to mitigate increasing human-porcupine conflicts in PKC.

Understanding the effect of biotic and abiotic factors, including habitat and interspecific competition, is crucial for species conservation. We quantified spatio-temporal patterns of sympatric large Indian civet (LIC; Viverra zibetha ) and small Indian civet (SIC; Viverricula indica ) using remote cameras in Parsa-Koshi Complex, Nepal during December 2022–March 2023. We found low spatial overlap between LIC and SIC (Oij = 0.15) and high diel overlap between LIC and SIC (Dhat1 = 0.759, normo0 CI: 0.670 ‒ 0.847). Large predators, i.e., tigers ( Panthera tigris ) and leopards ( P. pardus ) positively influenced the occurrence of LIC and SIC, respectively. Extent of grassland also positively influenced (0.529 ± 0.193) SIC occurrence. The coexistence of LIC and SIC is governed by complex ecological interactions, including habitat preferences and the influence of predator’s occurrences, and such dynamics are important implications for conservation planning. Effective conservation strategies should be considering for the spatial and temporal overlap of these species, considering the role of large predators and habitat variables such as grasslands to support the coexistence of sympatric carnivores and reduce human-wildlife conflict.

Invasive alien species play a major role in biodiversity decline. We studied the impacts of invasive alien plant species (IAPS) on bird assemblages and their habitats in Jalthal Forest, a biogeographically unique lowland remnant forest in eastern Nepal. We surveyed birds by point counts and quantified environmental variables at 89 sites. Observations of 1,373 individuals of 86 species showed that species richness was the highest in wooded grasslands and floodplains and lowest in sal forests invaded by IAPS, whereas abundance was highest in IAPS-invaded forests. Abundance and richness decreased with increasing cover of IAPS, shrub cover and distance to water. The abundance and richness of every feeding guild except omnivores were negatively correlated with IAPS cover. Our results increase our understanding of the impacts of IAPS on birds and clearly indicate the need of controlling IAPS in Jalthal Forest, and thus, are valuable for forest management and biodiversity conservation.

ABSTRACT Understanding bird diversity and composition is important for assessing survival, adaptability, and extinction risks. This study investigated bird species abundance, richness, seasonal diversity, and composition across habitats, seasons, and physiographic zones of Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) from 2020 to 2021 using the point count method. We recorded 458 bird species with higher richness and diversity in winter (n = 365) than in summer (n = 299). This study indicates a high diversity of birds (Shannon = 5.54, Simpson = 0.99) and an even distribution of species Pielou's Evenness Index (0.90). Species richness and abundance showed seasonal and habitat‐specific variations, with wetlands highest in winter (richness: 6.94 ± 0.38, abundance: 23.10 ± 5.65) and croplands in summer (richness: 7.00 ± 0.35, abundance: 13.61 ± 1.10), while forests exhibited stability. Evenness was high across all habitats (0.90 ± 0.01 to 0.95 ± 0.00), with minimal seasonal variation. Diversity indices were highest in cropland during summer (Margalef: 2.33 ± 0.10, Shannon: 1.77 ± 0.06, Simpson: 0.80 ± 0.02) and wetlands during winter (Margalef: 2.19 ± 0.08, Shannon: 1.75 ± 0.05, Simpson: 0.79 ± 0.01); forests had moderate and stable diversity, while grasslands showed low values. We observed 2 globally vulnerable, 5 near‐threatened, 2 endangered, and 3 critically endangered species. Analysis of similarity (ANOSIM) revealed significant community differentiation (p < 0.01) across parameters, with the strongest segregation in physiographic (R = 0.09), followed by seasons (R = 0.06) and habitat types (R = 0.01). Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) showed distinct habitat clusters and a strong influence of physiographic zones, with winter and wetland habitats driving species variance. This study revealed substantial differences in bird species across seasons, and each habitat offers a distinct ecological niche for bird species. This finding highlights CHAL as a hotspot for bird community. This research contributes to the conservation and management of this landscape, aiding in the protection of bird species in Nepal. Understanding bird diversity and composition is important for assessing survival, adaptability, and extinction risks. This study investigated bird species abundance, richness, seasonal diversity, and composition across habitats, seasons, and physiographic zones of Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) from 2020 to 2021 using the point count method. We recorded 458 bird species with higher richness and diversity in winter (n = 365) than in summer (n = 299).

ABSTRACT Wetlands serve as crucial habitats for diverse bird species, playing a vital role in maintaining the ecosystem. Geographical location, climate, hydrology, and vegetation composition of wetlands determine the diversity of birds. This study investigated species richness, seasonal diversity, and composition of wetland birds in three prominent water bodies of western Nepal, namely Ghodaghodi, Rani, and Jokhar lakes, from 2021 to 2022 in summer and winter using the point count method. We observed 59 wetland bird species across three wetlands, where both the richness and diversity were significantly higher in the winter. Paired t‐tests revealed significant seasonal differences (p < 0.001) in diversity, species richness, and abundance at both Ghodaghodi and Rani lakes. The highest species richness was observed at Ghodaghodi (n = 58), reflecting its significance as a vital bird habitat. In contrast, diversity was higher in Rani Lake during both seasons (Winter H = 2.98, Summer H = 2.79). NMDS followed by ANISOM test also showed that bird community structure varies across lakes and seasons. Indicator species analysis showed that out of 59 species, 26 species are associated with one or different sites, whereas 18 of them are associated with the summer or winter season. We observed the Anatidae family with the highest relative diversity (RDI = 28.81%) and reported 1 globally vulnerable species and 7 globally near‐threatened species. While in Jokhar Lake, the abundance does not vary between the seasons. This study revealed substantial differences in bird species across seasons and lakes showing that each wetland offers a distinct ecological niche for bird species. The findings reinstate the importance of these wetlands as crucial habitats for the diversity of birds and species composition. This research contributes to the conservation and management of these ecosystems, aiding the protection of wetland birds in Nepal.

Study of habitat segregation among the four species of cervids was conducted in the Chitwan National park of lowland Nepal. This study aimed to investigate the possible mechanisms of habitat partitioning among the four cervids - chital, sambar deer, hog deer and northern red muntjac using discriminant analysis and canonical correlation analysis. Present study considered four major niche dimensions - habitat, human disturbance, presence of predators and seasons. The data were collected by walking along the line transects that encompasses the different habitats, varying degree of human disturbances and frequency of predator’s presence. Results showed the significant effect of season on the habitat segregation among these cervids. There was higher niche overlap during summer season as compared to winter season. Habitat overlap between chital and muntjac was higher and unstable than others, which showed that they were the competitors of the same resources as enlightened by their generalist nature. Therefore, maintaining habitat heterogeneity and minimizing human disturbances will be better solutions for the coexistence of herbivores in the Chitwan National Park and can be an example for similar areas of lowland Nepal.