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In hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are crucial for viral control. However, a detailed understanding of the kinetic of CD4+ T cell help and its role in the generation of different CD8+ T cell subsets during acute infection is lacking. The absence of a small HCV animal model has impeded mechanistic studies of hepatic antiviral T cell immunity and HCV vaccine development. In this study, we used a recently developed HCV-related rodent hepacivirus infection mouse model to investigate the impact of CD4+ T cell help on the hepatic CD8+ T cell response and viral clearance during hepacivirus infection in vivo. Our results revealed a specific kinetic of CD4+ T cell dependency during acute infection. Early CD4+ T cell help was essential for CD8+ T cell priming and viral clearance, while CD4+ T cells became dispensable during later stages of acute infection. Effector CD8+ T cells directly mediated timely hepacivirus clearance. An analysis of hepatic CD8+ T cells specific for two different viral epitopes revealed the induction of subsets of liver-homing CD103+CD49a+ and CD103-CD49a+ effector CD8+ T cells with elevated IFN-γ and TNF-α production. CD103+CD49a+ T cells further persisted as tissue-resident memory subsets. A lack of CD4+ T cell help and CD40L-CD40 interactions resulted in reduced effector functions and phenotypical changes in effector CD8+ T cells and a specific loss of the CD103+CD49a+ subset. In summary, our study shows that early CD4+ T cell help through CD40L signaling is essential for priming functional effector CD8+ T cell subsets, including unique liver-homing subsets, and hepacivirus clearance.

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a curable disease, but the absence of a vaccine remains a major problem in infection prevention. The lack of small animal models and limited access to human liver tissue impede the study of hepatic antiviral immunity and the development of new vaccine strategies. We recently developed an immune-competent mouse model using an HCV-related rodent hepacivirus which shares immunological features with human viral hepatitis. In this study, we used this new model to investigate the role of invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells during hepacivirus infection in vivo. These cells are enriched in the liver, however their role in viral hepatitis is not well defined. Using high-dimensional flow cytometry and NKT cell deficient mice we analyzed a potential role of iNKT cells in mediating viral clearance, liver pathology or immune-regulation during hepacivirus infection. In addition, we identified new immune-dominant MHC class I restricted viral epitopes and analyzed the impact of iNKT cells on virus-specific CD8+ T cells. We found that rodent hepacivirus infection induced the activation of iNKT cell subsets with a mixed NKT1/NKT2 signature and significant production of type 2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-13) during acute infection. While iNKT cells were dispensable for viral clearance, the lack of these cells caused higher levels of liver injury during infection. In addition, the absence of iNKT cells resulted in increased effector functions of hepatic antiviral T cells. In conclusion, our study reports a regulatory role of hepatic iNKT cells during hepacivirus infection in vivo . Specifically, our data suggest that iNKT cells skewed towards type 2 immunity limit liver injury during acute infection by mechanisms that include the regulation of effector functions of virus-specific T cells.

An estimated 71 million people worldwide are infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV). The lack of small-animal models has impeded studies of antiviral immune mechanisms. Here we show that an HCV-related hepacivirus discovered in Norway rats can establish high-titer hepatotropic infections in laboratory mice with immunological features resembling those seen in human viral hepatitis. Whereas immune-compromised mice developed persistent infection, immune-competent mice cleared the virus within 3 to 5 weeks. Acute clearance was T cell dependent and associated with liver injury. Transient depletion of CD4⁺ T cells before infection resulted in chronic infection, characterized by high levels of intrahepatic regulatory T cells and expression of inhibitory molecules on intrahepatic CD8⁺ T cells. Natural killer cells controlled early infection but were not essential for viral clearance. This model may provide mechanistic insights into hepatic antiviral immunity, a prerequisite for the development of HCV vaccines.

Passive immunotherapy with a combination of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies is shown to be effective in suppressing HIV replication in a humanized mouse model. A boost for HIV-1 therapy Broadly neutralizing antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) are slow to develop and are found in only a fraction of patients, but they can prevent infection and so are of great importance for HIV therapy design. Previous work has shown that the virus can quickly evolve resistance against these antibodies; however, more potent antibodies are now available. Michel Nussenzweig and colleagues therefore re-examined the potential of antibody therapy in 'humanized' mice. They demonstrate that passive immunotherapy with combinations of broadly neutralizing antibodies effectively controls HIV-1 infection. The authors suggest that it is time to re-examine monoclonal antibodies as therapeutics in HIV-1-infected individuals. Human antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) can neutralize a broad range of viral isolates in vitro and protect non-human primates against infection 1 , 2 . Previous work showed that antibodies exert selective pressure on the virus but escape variants emerge within a short period of time 3 , 4 . However, these experiments were performed before the recent discovery of more potent anti-HIV-1 antibodies and their improvement by structure-based design 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 . Here we re-examine passive antibody transfer as a therapeutic modality in HIV-1-infected humanized mice. Although HIV-1 can escape from antibody monotherapy, combinations of broadly neutralizing antibodies can effectively control HIV-1 infection and suppress viral load to levels below detection. Moreover, in contrast to antiretroviral therapy 10 , 11 , 12 , the longer half-life of antibodies led to control of viraemia for an average of 60 days after cessation of therapy. Thus, combinations of potent monoclonal antibodies can effectively control HIV-1 replication in humanized mice, and should be re-examined as a therapeutic modality in HIV-1-infected individuals.

Effective control of HIV-1 infection in humans is achieved using combinations of antiretroviral therapy (ART) drugs. In humanized mice (hu-mice), control of viremia can be achieved using either ART or by immunotherapy using combinations of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs). Here we show that treatment of HIV-1–infected hu-mice with a combination of three highly potent bNAbs not only resulted in complete viremic control but also led to a reduction in cell-associated HIV-1 DNA. Moreover, lowering the initial viral load by coadministration of ART and immunotherapy enabled prolonged viremic control by a single bNAb after ART was withdrawn. Similarly, a single injection of adeno-associated virus directing expression of one bNAb produced durable viremic control after ART was terminated. We conclude that immunotherapy reduces plasma viral load and cell-associated HIV-1 DNA and that decreasing the initial viral load enables single bNAbs to control viremia in hu-mice.

T cells play an important role in the clearance of hepatotropic viruses but may also cause liver injury and contribute to disease progression in chronic hepatitis B and C virus infections which affect millions of people worldwide. The liver provides a unique microenvironment of immunological tolerance and hepatic immune regulation can modulate the functional properties of T cell subsets and influence the outcome of a virus infection. Extensive research over the last years has advanced our understanding of hepatic conventional CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and unconventional T cell subsets and their functions in the liver environment during acute and chronic viral infections. The recent development of new small animal models and technological advances should further increase our knowledge of hepatic immunological mechanisms. Here we provide an overview of the existing models to study hepatic T cells and review the current knowledge about the distinct roles of heterogeneous T cell populations during acute and chronic viral hepatitis.

CD8⁺ T lymphocytes play a key role in host defense, in particular against important persistent viruses, although the critical functional properties of such cells in tissue are not fully defined. We have previously observed that CD8⁺ T cells specific for tissue-localized viruses such as hepatitis C virus express high levels of the C-type lectin CD161. To explore the significance of this, we examined CD8⁺CD161⁺ T cells in healthy donors and those with hepatitis C virus and defined a population of CD8⁺ T cells with distinct homing and functional properties. These cells express high levels of CD161 and a pattern of molecules consistent with type 17 differentiation, including cytokines (e.g., IL-17, IL-22), transcription factors (e.g., retinoic acid-related orphan receptor γ-t, P = 6 x 10⁻⁹; RUNX2, P = 0.004), cytokine receptors (e.g., IL-23R, P = 2 x 10⁻⁷; IL-18 receptor, P = 4 x 10⁻⁶), and chemokine receptors (e.g., CCR6, P = 3 x 10⁻⁸; CXCR6, P = 3 x 10⁻⁷; CCR2, P = 4 x 10⁻⁷). CD161⁺CD8⁺ T cells were markedly enriched in tissue samples and coexpressed IL-17 with high levels of IFN-γ and/or IL-22. The levels of polyfunctional cells in tissue was most marked in those with mild disease (P = 0.0006). These data define a T cell lineage that is present already in cord blood and represents as many as one in six circulating CD8⁺ T cells in normal humans and a substantial fraction of tissue-infiltrating CD8⁺ T cells in chronic inflammation. Such cells play a role in the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis and arthritis and potentially in other infectious and inflammatory diseases of man.

Pierre Guermonprez and colleagues have worked out how a subset of dendritic cells expands in individuals with severe malaria. Plasmodium infection causes an accumulation of xanthine in infected red blood cells. The researchers found that type I interferon triggers an increase in the enzyme that metabolizes xanthine to uric acid. Uric acid then acts on mast cells to release Flt3 ligand, an important regulator of dendritic cells, which in turn stimulate T cells to respond to the infection. Innate sensing mechanisms trigger a variety of humoral and cellular events that are essential to adaptive immune responses. Here we describe an innate sensing pathway triggered by Plasmodium infection that regulates dendritic cell homeostasis and adaptive immunity through Flt3 ligand (Flt3l) release. Plasmodium- induced Flt3l release in mice requires Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation and type I interferon (IFN) production. We found that type I IFN supports the upregulation of xanthine dehydrogenase, which metabolizes the xanthine accumulating in infected erythrocytes to uric acid. Uric acid crystals trigger mast cells to release soluble Flt3l from a pre-synthesized membrane-associated precursor. During infection, Flt3l preferentially stimulates expansion of the CD8-α + dendritic cell subset or its BDCA3 + human dendritic cell equivalent and has a substantial impact on the magnitude of T cell activation, mostly in the CD8 + compartment. Our findings highlight a new mechanism that regulates dendritic cell homeostasis and T cell responses to infection.

A subset of CD8⁺ T cells can secrete interleukin 17 (IL-17). However, very little information is currently available about their antigen specificity, tissue distribution, and biological relevance in chronic human viral infection. To address these issues, we comprehensively analyzed peripheral and intrahepatic CD8⁺ T-cell responses in a cohort of patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection for the antigenspecific production of IL-17 and interferon (IFN) γ. We found that HCV-specific IL-17-producing and retinoic acid receptor related orphan receptoγt-expressing CD8⁺ T cells are detectable in blood and liver and target different epitopes, compared with IFN-γ-producing CD8 ⁺ T cells. Their highest frequency was found in patients with low inflammatory activity, suggesting a protective role in chronic HCV infection.

A subset of CD8 super(+) T cells can secrete interleukin 17 (IL-17). However, very little information is currently available about their antigen specificity, tissue distribution, and biological relevance in chronic human viral infection. To address these issues, we comprehensively analyzed peripheral and intrahepatic CD8 super(+) T-cell responses in a cohort of patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection for the antigen-specific production of IL-17 and interferon (IFN) gamma . We found that HCV-specific IL-17-producing and retinoic acid receptor related orphan receptor gamma t-expressing CD8 super(+) T cells are detectable in blood and liver and target different epitopes, compared with IFN- gamma -producing CD8 super(+) T cells. Their highest frequency was found in patients with low inflammatory activity, suggesting a protective role in chronic HCV infection.