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Alpine grouses are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to their adaptation to extreme conditions and to their relict distributions in the Alps where global warming has been particularly marked in the last half century. Grouses are also currently threatened by habitat modification and human disturbance, and an assessment of the impact of multiple stressors is needed to predict the fate of Alpine populations of these birds in the next decades. We estimated the effect of climate change and human disturbance on a rock ptarmigan population living in the western Italian Alps by combining an empirical population modelling approach and stochastic simulations of the population dynamics under the a1B climate scenario and two different disturbance scenarios, represented by the development of a ski resort, through 2050.The early appearance of snow-free ground in the previous spring had a favorable effect on the rock ptarmigan population, probably through a higher reproductive success. On the contrary, delayed snowfall in autumn had a negative effect possibly due to a mismatch in time to molt to white winter plumage which increases predation risk. The regional climate model PROTHEUS does not foresee any significant change in snowmelt date in the study area, while the start date of continuous snow cover is expected to be significantly delayed. The net effect in the stochastic projections is a more or less pronounced (depending on the model used) decline in the studied population. The addition of extra-mortality due to collision with ski-lift wires led the population to fatal consequences in most projections. Should these results be confirmed by larger studies the conservation of Alpine populations would deserve more attention. To counterbalance the effects of climate change, the reduction of all causes of death should be pursued, through a strict preservation of the habitats in the present area of occurrence.

Mountain biodiversity is associated with rare and fragile biota that are highly sensitive to climate change. To estimate the vulnerability of biodiversity to temperature rise, long-term field data are crucial. Species distribution models are an essential tool, in particular for invertebrates, for which detailed information on spatial and temporal distributions is largely missing. We applied presence-only distribution models to field data obtained from a systematic survey of 5 taxa (birds, butterflies, carabids, spiders, staphylinids), monitored in the northwestern Italian Alps. We estimated the effects of a moderate temperature increase on the multi-taxa distributions. Only small changes in the overall biodiversity patterns emerged, but we observed significant differences between groups of species and along the altitudinal gradient. The effects of temperature increase could be more pronounced for spiders and butterflies, and particularly detrimental for high-altitude species. We observed significant changes in community composition and species richness, especially in the alpine belt, but a clear separation between vegetation levels was retained also in the warming scenarios. Our conservative approach suggests that even a moderate temperature increase (about 1 °C) could influence animal biodiversity in mountain ecosystems: only long-term field data can provide the information to improve quantitative predictions, allowing us to readily identify the most informative signals of forthcoming changes.

In this study we apply a new monitoring technique for butterflies in order to get more insights into the habitat use patterns of Erebia christi Rätzer 1890 (Nymphalidae: Satyrinae). This European endemic is a rare and very localized butterfly species, found alongside steep slopes in a restricted area in the Alps, at the border between Italy and Switzerland. Even though it was discovered almost 140 years ago, captivating the interest of many lepidopterists, there are still several aspects about the biology of E. christi that are not fully known. We selected two monitoring sites in Veglia–Devero Natural Park, Italy and tested whether E. christi was more likely to use rocky, almost vertical slopes than other types of habitat. Since this habitat was almost inaccessible to humans, we used the single rope access technique, in which field operators rappelled down the slopes to explore the rock faces. We demonstrate that the main characteristics of the typical habitat of E. christi are indeed very steep rock faces with grassy ledges where Festuca sp. plants are present. We also show that, E. christi is more abundant than it was previously thought, with populations that could probably be structured in a metapopulation system. Long-term monitoring with the rope access technique could represent an optimal method to provide key insights into the biology and ecology not only of E. christi but of other butterflies that use similar habitats. Finally, we propose the upgrading of its IUCN category from Vulnerable to Endangered at European level.Implications for insect conservationOur findings demonstrate how appropriate, long-term monitoring can contribute to improve the scarce knowledge of the ecology of an elusive species, and to devise informed proposals regarding the management and protection of populations, especially for species of conservation concern.

Mountain ecosystems are particularly sensitive to changes in climate and land cover, but at the same time, they can offer important refuges for species on the opposite of the more altered lowlands. To explore the potential role of mountain ecosystems in butterfly conservation and to assess the vulnerability of the alpine species, we analyzed the short-term changes (2006–2008 vs. 2012–2013) of butterflies’ distribution along altitudinal gradients in the NW Italian Alps. We sampled butterfly communities once a month (62 sampling stations, 3 seasonal replicates per year, from June to August) by semi-quantitative sampling techniques. The monitored gradient ranges from the montane to the alpine belt (600–2700 m a.s.l.) within three protected areas: Gran Paradiso National Park (LTER, Sitecode: LTER_EU_IT_109), Orsiera Rocciavrè Natural Park and Veglia Devero Natural Park. We investigated butterflies’ temporal changes in accordance with a hierarchical approach to assess potential relationships between species and community level. As a first step, we characterized each species in terms of habitat requirements, elevational range and temperature preferences and we compared plot occupancy and altitudinal range changes between time periods (2006–2008 vs. 2012–2013). Secondly, we focused on community level, analyzing species richness and community composition temporal changes. The species level analysis highlighted a general increase in mean occupancy level and significant changes at both altitudinal boundaries. Looking at the ecological groups, we observed an increase of generalist and highly mobile species at the expense of the specialist and less mobile ones. For the community level, we noticed a significant increase in species richness, in the community temperature index and a tendency towards homogenization within communities. Besides the short time period considered, butterflies species distribution and communities changed considerably. In light of these results, it is fundamental to continue monitoring activities to understand if we are facing transient changes or first signals of an imminent trend.

Cryptosporidium is a widespread apicomplexan protozoan of major zoonotic importance, characterized by a wide host range, and with relevant economic implications and potential negative effects on livestock and wildlife population dynamics. Considering the recent strong demographic increase of alpine ungulates, in this study, carried out in the Italian Northwestern Alps, we investigated the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. in these species and their potential involvement in environmental contamination with Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts. The immune-enzymatic approach revealed a Cryptosporidium prevalence of 1.7% (5/293), 0.5% (1/196) and 3.4% (4/119) in alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), respectively. Positive samples were subjected to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification for the COWP and gp60 genes. The presence of Cryptosporidium was confirmed in one chamois and four roe deer. Sequences obtained clustered within Cryptosporidium ubiquitum, currently recognized as an emerging zoonotic species. This finding represents the first detection of zoonotic C. ubiquitum in chamois and in the Alpine environment. Despite the low observed prevalences, environmental contamination by oocysts could play a role as a potential source of infections for humans and livestock.

Aim: Human-induced climate change requires conservation strategies incorporating its potential effects on species and communities. Key components of population persistence can be attributed to resistance (the capacity to remain unaffected) or resilience (capacity to absorb and recover) to climate change. In situ climatic refugia can act as resistant distribution units, and ex situ climatic refugia and the corridors to reach them may enhance resilience. We develop a novel approach selecting conservation priorities, resistant units and resilient areas according to structural connectivity and future distribution, to identify strategies that maximize the chances of species persistence in a changing climate. Location: Italian Alps. Methods: Conservation priorities were defined across species according to the regional conservation status and the level of threat from climate change, and across sites according to their suitability for target species and their related potential for population persistence (in situ climatic refugia, i.e., resistant units) or redistribution (ex situ climatic refugia and main corridors according to current and future connectivity, i.e., resilient units). Results: Models suggested a marked loss of suitable area for all species by 2050 (ranging from ~50% for pygmy owl and water pipit, to 84% for snowfinch in the worst scenario), and a general loss of connectivity, which was particularly marked for pygmy owl and snowfinch. The approach applied to Alpine birds of different habitats led to a spatially explicit definition of conservation priorities. Main conclusions: The spatial definition of conservation priorities according to species (regional importance and level of threat), resistance and resilience refines the definition of management/conservation priorities (including protected area definition), complementing the existing approaches to address climate change-induced threats in planning conservation and ecological networks.

Source-sink dynamics refer to systems with some units as sources of juveniles, and others as sinks. The same pattern can theoretically occur at a small spatial scale, within single populations. Under these circumstances, varying quality of breeding habitats/territories determines different levels of survival and/or reproduction, which in turn result in varying contributions of territories to the population dynamics. Territory occupancy has been proposed as an indirect measure of habitat quality. Here, we used territory occupancy and productivity from a long-termmonitoring of an Eagle Owl Bubo bubo population in NW Italy to (i) show how different contributions to population dynamicsmay characterize territories over limited geographical scale in a strongly territorial species, and (ii) investigate the potential use of territory occupancy as a proxy for habitat quality in this species. Three out of 10 territories appeared to producemost fledglings (potential sources), whereas the others were characterized by extremely low productivity (possible sinks). The overall productivity is likely to nearly balancemortality, but the general equilibriummasks complex variation in the contributions of territories to the population dynamic. Territory occupancywas affected by average productivity, and thus long-term occupancy could be used as a proxy for habitat quality. In long-lived and scarce territorial species, such as the Eagle Owl, preservation of suitable conditions at key territories can be crucial for the population survival.

Source-sink dynamics refer to systems with some units as sources of juveniles, and others as sinks. The same pattern can theoretically occur at a small spatial scale, within single populations. Under these circumstances, varying quality of breeding habitats/territories determines different levels of survival and/or reproduction, which in turn result in varying contributions of territories to the population dynamics. Territory occupancy has been proposed as an indirect measure of habitat quality. Here, we used territory occupancy and productivity from a long-term monitoring of an Eagle Owl Bubo bubo population in NW Italy to (i) show how different contributions to population dynamics may characterize territories over limited geographical scale in a strongly territorial species, and (ii) investigate the potential use of territory occupancy as a proxy for habitat quality in this species. Three out of 10 territories appeared to produce most fledglings (potential sources), whereas the others were characterized by extremely low productivity (possible sinks). The overall productivity is likely to nearly balance mortality, but the general equilibrium masks complex variation in the contributions of territories to the population dynamic. Territory occupancy was affected by average productivity, and thus long-term occupancy could be used as a proxy for habitat quality. In long-lived and scarce territorial species, such as the Eagle Owl, preservation of suitable conditions at key territories can be crucial for the population survival. Lahde-nieludynamiikka kuvaa systeemeja, joissa osa yksikoista tuottaa nuorten yksiloiden ylijaaman, kun osa taas toimii nieluna tai \"valenieluna\". Samanlaista vaihtelua voidaan teoriassa tavata myos pienemmassa mittakaavassa, yksittaisenpopulaation sisalla, tilanteessa jossa reviirin laatu maarittelee yksiloiden selviytymista ja jalkelaistuottoa, naiden edelleen vaikuttaessa populaatiodynamiikkaan eri tavoin. Reviirin asuttamisen on esitetty kertovan ympariston laadusta. Tutkimme huuhkajan (Bubo bubo) pitkaaikaista reviirin asuttamista ja tuottavuutta PohjoisItaliassa (i) kuvaillaksemme, miten reviirien laatu maarittelee rajoittuneella maantieteellisella alueella olevan populaation dynamiikkaa, ja (ii) selvittaaksemme reviirin asuttamisen toimivuutta ympariston laadun heijastajana. Kolme kymmenesta reviirista tuotti suurimman osan lentopoikasista ja olivat siten potentiaalisia lahdereviireja. Loppuja luonnehti aarimmaisen alhainen poikastuotto, eli ne saattavat olla nieluja. Populaatiotasolla tuottavuus naytti tasapainottavan kuolleisuutta, mutta tasapainotila pitaa sisallaan monimutkaista reviirikohtaista vaihtelua tuottavuudessa. Reviirin asutus riippui keskimaaraisesta jalkelaistuotosta, joten pitkaaikainen asuttaminenvoi heijastaa ymparistonlaatua. Pitkaikaisilla ja vahalukuisilla, territoriaalisilla lajeilla, kuten huuhkajalla, avainreviirien hyvien olosuhteiden sailyttaminen saattaa olla koko populaation sailymisen kannalta keskeista.

Mountain ecosystems are particularly sensitive to changes in climate and land cover, but at the same time, they can offer important refuges for species on the opposite of the more altered lowlands. To explore the potential role of mountain ecosystems in butterfly conservation and to assess the vulnerability of the alpine species, we analyzed the short-term changes (2006-2008 vs. 2012-2013) of butterflies' distribution along altitudinal gradients in the NW Italian Alps. We sampled butterfly communities once a month (62 sampling stations, 3 seasonal replicates per year, from June to August) by semi-quantitative sampling techniques. The monitored gradient ranges from the montane to the alpine belt (600-2700 m a.s.l.) within three protected areas: Gran Paradiso National Park (LTER, Sitecode: LTER_EU_IT_109), Orsiera Rocciavrè Natural Park and Veglia Devero Natural Park. We investigated butterflies' temporal changes in accordance with a hierarchical approach to assess potential relationships between species and community level. As a first step, we characterized each species in terms of habitat requirements, elevational range and temperature preferences and we compared plot occupancy and altitudinal range changes between time periods (2006-2008 vs. 2012-2013). Secondly, we focused on community level, analyzing species richness and community composition temporal changes. The species level analysis highlighted a general increase in mean occupancy level and significant changes at both altitudinal boundaries. Looking at the ecological groups, we observed an increase of generalist and highly mobile species at the expense of the specialist and less mobile ones. For the community level, we noticed a significant increase in species richness, in the community temperature index and a tendency towards homogenization within communities. Besides the short time period considered, butterflies species distribution and communities changed considerably. In light of these results, it is fundamental to continue monitoring activities to understand if we are facing transient changes or first signals of an imminent trend.

Alpine grouses are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to their adaptation to extreme conditions and to their relict distributions in the Alps where global warming has been particularly marked in the last half century. Grouses are also currently threatened by habitat modification and human disturbance, and an assessment of the impact of multiple stressors is needed to predict the fate of Alpine populations of these birds in the next decades. We estimated the effect of climate change and human disturbance on a rock ptarmigan population living in the western Italian Alps by combining an empirical population modelling approach and stochastic simulations of the population dynamics under the a1B climate scenario and two different disturbance scenarios, represented by the development of a ski resort, through 2050.The early appearance of snow-free ground in the previous spring had a favorable effect on the rock ptarmigan population, probably through a higher reproductive success. On the contrary, delayed snowfall in autumn had a negative effect possibly due to a mismatch in time to molt to white winter plumage which increases predation risk. The regional climate model PROTHEUS does not foresee any significant change in snowmelt date in the study area, while the start date of continuous snow cover is expected to be significantly delayed. The net effect in the stochastic projections is a more or less pronounced (depending on the model used) decline in the studied population. The addition of extra-mortality due to collision with ski-lift wires led the population to fatal consequences in most projections. Should these results be confirmed by larger studies the conservation of Alpine populations would deserve more attention. To counterbalance the effects of climate change, the reduction of all causes of death should be pursued, through a strict preservation of the habitats in the present area of occurrence.