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The Pacific Equatorial dry forest of Northern Peru is recognised for its unique endemic biodiversity. Although highly threatened the forest provides livelihoods and ecosystem services to local communities. As agro-industrial expansion and climatic variation transform the region, close ecosystem monitoring is essential for viable adaptation strategies. UAVs offer an affordable alternative to satellites in obtaining both colour and near infrared imagery to meet the specific requirements of spatial and temporal resolution of a monitoring system. Combining this with their capacity to produce three dimensional models of the environment provides an invaluable tool for species level monitoring. Here we demonstrate that object-based image analysis of very high resolution UAV images can identify and quantify keystone tree species and their health across wide heterogeneous landscapes. The analysis exposes the state of the vegetation and serves as a baseline for monitoring and adaptive implementation of community based conservation and restoration in the area.

Previous studies have shown that virtual reality (VR) is effective in reducing acute and chronic pain both in adults and in children. Given the emergence of new VR technology, and the growing body of research surrounding VR and pain management, an updated systematic review is warranted. The purpose of this systematic review is to compare the effectiveness of VR in reducing acute and chronic pain in adults. A search was conducted in three databases (PubMed, CINAHL, Trip) using standardized search terms. Twenty experimental and quasi-experimental trials published between January 2007 and December 2018 were included based on prespecified inclusion and exclusion criteria. Pain intensity was the primary outcome. We extracted data and appraised the quality of articles using either the PEDro or Modified Downs and Black risk of bias tools. The majority of studies supported the use of VR to reduce acute pain both during the procedure and immediately after. Numerous studies found VR reduced chronic pain during VR exposure but there is insufficient evidence to support lasting analgesia. There was considerable variability in patient population, pain condition and dosage of VR exposure. Due to heterogeneity, we were unable to perform meta-analyses for all study populations and pain conditions. VR is an effective treatment for reducing acute pain. There is some research that suggests VR can reduce chronic pain during the intervention; however, more evidence is needed to conclude that VR is effective for lasting reductions in chronic pain.

Walking dental hygiene students step-by-step through everything they need to know.

Tropical peatlands are important carbon stores that are vulnerable to drainage and conversion to agriculture. Protection and restoration of peatlands are increasingly recognised as key nature based solutions that can be implemented as part of climate change mitigation. Identification of peatland areas that are important for protection and restauration with regards to the state of their carbon stocks, are therefore vital for policy makers. In this paper we combined organic geochemical analysis by Rock-Eval (6) pyrolysis of peat collected from sites with different land management history and optical remote sensing products to assess if remotely sensed data could be used to predict peat conditions and carbon storage. The study used the North Selangor Peat Swamp forest, Malaysia, as the model system. Across the sampling sites the carbon stocks in the below ground peat was ca 12 times higher than the forest (median carbon stock held in ground vegetation 114.70 Mg ha -1 and peat soil 1401.51 Mg ha -1 ). Peat core sub-samples and litter collected from Fire Affected, Disturbed Forest, and Managed Recovery locations (i.e. disturbed sites) had different decomposition profiles than Central Forest sites. The Rock-Eval pyrolysis of the upper peat profiles showed that surface peat layers at Fire Affected, Disturbed Forest, and Managed Recovery locations had lower immature organic matter index (I-index) values (average I-index range in upper section 0.15 to -0.06) and higher refractory organic matter index (R -index) (average R-index range in upper section 0.51 to 0.65) compared to Central Forest sites indicating enhanced decomposition of the surface peat. In the top 50 cm section of the peat profile, carbon stocks were negatively related to the normalised burns ratio (NBR) (a satellite derived parameter) (Spearman’s rho = -0.664, S = 366, p-value = <0.05) while there was a positive relationship between the hydrogen index and the normalised burns ratio profile (Spearman’s rho = 0.7, S = 66, p-value = <0.05) suggesting that this remotely sensed product is able to detect degradation of peat in the upper peat profile. We conclude that the NBR can be used to identify degraded peatland areas and to support identification of areas for conversation and restoration.

IntroductionThe application of high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT) to assess bone microarchitecture has grown rapidly since its introduction in 2005. As the use of HR-pQCT for clinical research continues to grow, there is an urgent need to form a consensus on imaging and analysis methodologies so that studies can be appropriately compared. In addition, with the recent introduction of the second-generation HrpQCT, which differs from the first-generation HR-pQCT in scan region, resolution, and morphological measurement techniques, there is a need for guidelines on appropriate reporting of results and considerations as the field adopts newer systems.MethodsA joint working group between the International Osteoporosis Foundation, American Society of Bone and Mineral Research, and European Calcified Tissue Society convened in person and by teleconference over several years to produce the guidelines and recommendations presented in this document.ResultsAn overview and discussion is provided for (1) standardized protocol for imaging distal radius and tibia sites using HR-pQCT, with the importance of quality control and operator training discussed; (2) standardized terminology and recommendations on reporting results; (3) factors influencing accuracy and precision error, with considerations for longitudinal and multi-center study designs; and finally (4) comparison between scanner generations and other high-resolution CT systems.ConclusionThis article addresses the need for standardization of HR-pQCT imaging techniques and terminology, provides guidance on interpretation and reporting of results, and discusses unresolved issues in the field.

Heavy metals are an important class of pollutants with both lethal and sublethal effects on organisms. The latter are receiving increased attention, as these may have harmful ecological outcomes. For example, recent explorations of heavy metals in freshwater habitats reveal that they can modify chemical communication between individuals, resulting in “info-disruption” that can impact ecological relationships within and between species. Info-disruption can affect animal behavior and social structure, which in turn can modify both intraspecies and interspecies interactions. In terrestrial habitats, info-disruption by metals is not well studied, but recent demonstrations of chemical signaling between plants via both roots and volatile organic molecules provide potential opportunities for info-disruption. Metals in terrestrial habitats also can form elemental plant defenses, in which they can defend a plant against natural enemies. For example, hyperaccumulation of metals by terrestrial plants has been shown to provide defensive benefits, although in almost all known cases the metals are not anthropogenic pollutants but are naturally present in soils inhabited by these plants. Info-disruption among microbes is another arena in which metal pollutants may have ecological effects, as recent discoveries regarding quorum sensing in bacteria provide an avenue for metals to affect interactions among bacteria or between bacteria and other organisms. Metal pollutants also may influence immune responses of organisms, and thus affect pathogen/host relationships. Immunomodulation (modification of immune system function) has been tied to some metal pollutants, although specific metals may boost or reduce immune system function depending on dose. Finally, the study of metal pollutants is complicated by their frequent occurrence as mixtures, either with other metals or with organic pollutants. Most studies of metal pollutants focus on single metals and therefore oversimplify complex field conditions. Study of pollutant impacts on chemical ecology also are difficult due to the necessity of studying effects at varying ecological scales: “dynamic scaling” of chemical ecology studies is rarely done completely. It is clear that much remains to be learned about how heavy metal pollution impacts organisms, and that exciting new research frontiers are available for experimental exploration.

Elemental hyperaccumulation may have several functions, including plant defense against natural enemies. A total of 34 studies, including 72 experimental tests, have been conducted to date. At least some tests have demonstrated defense by hyperaccumulated As, Cd, Ni, Se and Zn, but relatively few plant taxa and natural enemies have been investigated. Defense by hyperaccumulated Ni has been shown for most leaf/root chewing herbivores and pathogens tested (20 of 26 tests) but not for herbivores of other feeding modes (1 of 8 tests). Most tests (5 of 6) using Ni concentrations below accumulator levels found no defensive effect, and the single test using plants in the accumulator range also found no effect. For Zn, mixed results have been reported for both hyperaccumulator (3 of 6 tests showed defense) and accumulator levels (3 of 4 tests showed defense). These tests have focused exclusively on leaf chewing/scraping herbivores: no herbivores of other feeding modes, or pathogens, have been tested. Both hyperaccumulator and accumulator concentrations of Se generally have shown defensive effects (12 of 14 tests). Most (75%) of these positive results used plants with accumulator Se concentrations. The three tests of Cd showed defensive effects in two cases, one for hyperaccumulator and one for sub-accumulator Cd concentrations. Arsenic has been tested only once, and was found effective against a leaf-chewing herbivore at a concentration much less than the hyperaccumulator level. Defense studies have used a variety of experimental approaches, including choice and no-choice experiments as well as experiments that use artificial diet or growth media. Investigations of hyperaccumulation as a defense against natural enemies have led to two emerging questions. First, what is the minimum concentration of an element sufficient for defense? Evidence suggests that plants other than hyperaccumulators (such as accumulators) may be defended by elements against some natural enemies. Second, do the effects of an element combine with the effects of organic defensive compounds in plants to produce enhanced joint defensive effects? Recent investigation of this “joint effects hypothesis,” using Ni and secondary plant compounds in artificial insect diet, has demonstrated joint effects. Initial answers to both these questions suggest that defensive effects of elements in plants are more widespread than previously believed. These results also suggest an evolutionary pathway by which elemental hyperaccumulation may have evolved from accumulation. In this “defensive enhancement” scenario, defensive benefits of elevated levels of elements may have led to stepwise increases in element concentrations that further magnified these benefits. This series of steps could have led to increased accumulation, and ultimately hyperaccumulation, of elements by plants.