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Background Despite the well-known benefits of physical activity (PA), non-communicable disease and premature mortality rates among adults continue to rise. The relationship between adults’ goals and exercise-specific motivation on the type of PA intensity one engages remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to identify physical activity (PA) profiles based on frequency and intensity (i.e., levels of PA) in an adult sample. A secondary purpose was to examine how the PA profiles differ on the reasons people have for exercising and behavioral regulation. Methods A Cross-sectional survey was conducted with 1,169 (46.8 ± 16.7 years) participants solicited from a hospital-affiliated wellness center, social media promotions, and a research volunteer registry. The International PA Questionnaire (IPAQ) was used to determine frequency, intensity, and time spent engaging in PA. Additionally, the Reasons to Exercise (REX-2) scale, the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-3 (BREQ-3), and demographics were assessed. K-cluster analyses were performed to identify profiles based on PA levels using the IPAQ guidelines. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to assess profile differences. Results Five distinct PA clusters were derived, and defined as: a Low, Walking, Moderate Intensity, High Intensity, and Sitting cluster (p < .001). These clusters differed significantly ( p  < .001) from each other with respect to motivation, the reasons adults have for exercise, and PA levels. Conclusion The results from this study support the important role of psychological factors such as motivation and reasons for exercise on behavioral outcomes (i.e., physical activity). For future research investigating adults PA- related behaviors, whether it be on adults starting a new exercise program or for PA maintenance, it may be beneficial to develop programs that encourage participants to reflect on the reasons they identify as important for exercising, and how such reasons contribute to their overall PA engagement behaviors.

University courses for mental skills training (MST) and performance enhancement have been developed by sport psychology faculty and professionals to provide training for university student-athletes (Curry & Maniar, 2004). The integration of MST into both academic and sport settings can support the development of mental resilience, psychological well-being, and athletic performance in student-athletes, making it highly relevant for physical education programs. These interventions have also shown potential to enhance academic performance and coping skills while reducing anxiety. However, literature supporting the psychological and performance benefits of classroom-based MST courses remains limited, particularly in comparison to traditional sport training environments. This qualitative case study explored the effectiveness and experiences of a 16-week university MST course offered through a Movement Sciences department and designed specifically for elite student-athletes. Six participants across various sports engaged in semi-structured interviews conducted during the semester to assess their perceptions, challenges, and applications of MST both in and out of the classroom. Using transcription and thematic coding, 560 meaning units were identified and categorized into subthemes, themes, and two major dimensions: learning and high-performance mindset. The learning dimension encompassed themes such as applying MST, overcoming barriers, and a desire for self-improvement, while the high-performance mindset focused on student-athletes' expectations, perceptions, and limitations related to their sport. This study highlights the potential of classroom-based MST courses to enhance performance and psychological skills in student-athletes both in the classroom and in their sport. Findings provide practical recommendations for integrating MST into physical education curricula, emphasizing its role in fostering resilience and holistic development in both academic and athletic domains.

The Disablement in the Physically Active (DPA) scale is a patient-reported outcome instrument recommended for use in clinical practice and research. Analysis of the scale has indicated a need for further psychometric testing. To assess the model fit of the original DPA scale using a larger and more diverse sample and explore the potential for a short-form (SF) version. Observational study. Twenty-four clinical settings. Responses were randomly split into 2 samples: sample 1 (n = 690: 353 males, 330 females, and 7 not reported; mean age = 23.1 ± 9.3 years, age range = 11-75 years) and sample 2 (n = 690: 351 males, 337 females, and 2 not reported; mean age = 22.9 ± 9.3 years, age range = 8-74 years). Participants were physically active individuals who were healthy or experiencing acute, subacute, or persistent musculoskeletal injury. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to assess the factor structure of the original DPA scale. Exploratory factor, internal consistency, covariance modeling, correlational, and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to assess potential DPA scale SFs. The subdimensions of the disablement construct were highly correlated (≥0.89). The fit indices for the DPA scale approached recommended levels, but the first-order correlational values and second-order path coefficients provided evidence for multicollinearity, suggesting that clear distinctions between the disablement subdimensions cannot be made. An 8-item, 2-dimensional solution and a 10-item, 3-dimensional solution were extracted to produce SF versions. The DPA SF-8 was highly correlated ( = 0.94, ≤ .001, = 0.88) with the DPA scale, and the fit indices exceeded all of the strictest recommendations. The DPA SF-10 was highly correlated ( = 0.97, ≤ .001, = 0.94) with the DPA scale, and its fit indices values also exceeded the strictest recommendations. The DPA SF-8 and SF-10 are psychometrically sound alternatives to the DPA scale.

This study examined the effectiveness of an applied mental skills training (MST) intervention utilizing mental skills to enhance intrinsic sources of enjoyment (ISOEs) as a means of promoting self-confidence, motivational style, and athletic performance, while also decreasing trait anxiety. The intervention project was designed to increase intrinsic SOE using a systematic and individualized mental training protocol, and then examine its relationships to mental skills and soccer performance. A Division 1 collegiate women's soccer team was randomly assigned to treatment (n = 8) and control (n = 11) groups, equally distributed by academic year, position, and pre-season coach-evaluated starters and non-starts. Results revealed that the MST intervention significantly increased intrinsic enjoyment targeted psychological and competitive outcomes, both in practice and competition within the treatment group as compared to the control group. This study's support for the impact mental skills training may have had on ISOEs, as well as other psychosocial outcomes and athletic performance can serve to highlight a mental skill often overlooked by consultants and coaches.

The field of applied sport and performance psychology is booming. More graduate education programs are emerging, attracting increasing numbers of qualified students, and growing the exposure and knowledge base of the field (Quinn, 2011). Coupled with a strong theoretical and research foundation, applied sport psychology consulting experiences are vital to developing well-rounded professionals in the field (Balague, 2011). Guided by the three fundamentals of positive relationships, exchange relationships, and positive self-efficacy, Network Theory (Turnbull, Ford, and Cunningham, 1996) can provide graduate students with the opportunities and experiences in which to practice their applied sport psychology skills. Future applied sport psychology consultants will need to mesh their academic foundation with solid business, marketing, advertising, and branding skills and techniques to grow their personal consulting brand as well as the field of sport psychology. This article provides theorydriven practical applications of Network Theory for sport psychology students whose goal is to enhance their depth of knowledge through applied sport psychology consulting experiences.

As we enter the year 2007, more and more organizations are beginning to see that traditional, autocratic, and hierarchical models of leadership are failing to provide the framework necessary for productive work environments. According to McGee-Cooper and Trammell (2002), servant-leadership is one model of leadership that can help turn those traditional notions of leadership and organizational structure upside down and provide the needed context for a more satisfied and productive workforce. The servantleader model (Greenleaf, 1977) is one based on teamwork and community, one that seeks to involve others in decision making, one strongly based in ethical and caring behavior, and one that enhances the personal growth of subordinates while improving the caring and quality of our institutions (Spears, 1998). One such institution, intercollegiate athletics, and more specifically the leadership methods of athletic coaches operating within that institution, should be well suited to the application of the servant-leader model. However, the academic fields that influence the practices of athletic coaches, most notably physical education, sport psychology, sport philosophy, and exercise science, have been slow to adopt this new paradigm (Westre, 2003). Further, athletic coaches are a group of leaders who could benefit greatly from the servant-leader model because of their strong potential to influence the emotional, social, and moral development of young sport performers. While coaches' role in enhancing athletes' motivation and satisfaction is well known (e.g., Amorose & Hom, 2000), the relationship between servant-leader behaviors and these performance-based psychological variables is not. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine how servant-leader coaching behaviors impact collegiate athletes' intrinsic motivation, sport satisfaction, and athletic coping skills.

Purpose: To explore the preparation methods, perceptions, and clinical profile of athletic trainers who use instrument-assisted soft tissue mobilization and to compare group differences regarding the use of one's hands versus instruments to apply soft tissue mobilization. Methods: Athletic trainers completed an electronic survey. Descriptive statistics were calculated for participant demographics, clinical profile items, and items assessing instrument-assisted soft tissue mobilization application. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to determine underlying factors. Results: Athletic trainers completed formal (59.7%) and informal (95%) instrument-assisted soft tissue mobilization training. Those who completed professional courses rated instruments as more effective than those who did not. Conclusions: Instruments were perceived to be as or more effective than one's hands when applying soft tissue mobilization to treat chronic musculoskeletal pathologies. Further research is needed to determine whether type of preparation affects the application strategies or clinical efficacy of instrument-assisted soft tissue mobilization. [Athletic Training & Sports Health Care. 2018;10(4):169–180.]

This investigation examined Burton and Weiss' (2008) goal-setting styles (GSS) model that hypothesizes how a motivation-involvement personality variable influences goal practices in sport. The purpose of this study was to (a) examine whether cluster analysis could identify GSS profiles, and (b) assess whether profile differences were congruent with model predictions. The sample was comprised of 338 prospective Olympic athletes from 12 sports (M age = 25.2 years). Respondents completed an extensive goal-setting survey assessing goal frequency, effectiveness, commitment and barriers as well as several motivational correlate variables. Cluster analysis used competitive orientation and trait sport confidence to create four profile groups, and differences among the groups were examined for 9 goal subscales, 7 goal preferences, and 5 demographic and career success variables. Supporting model predictions, performance-oriented athletes scored highest on all variables, the most failure-oriented cluster lowest, and success-oriented and the transition failure-oriented profiles were intermediate to these extremes.

This investigation utilized a single-subject, nonexperimental case study design to conduct an initial empirical test of the periodized mental skills training model. Six members of the United States Cross Country Ski Team's National Developmental Group participated in a season long comprehensive mental skills intervention. This intervention included an 8-week educational phase followed by the development and implementation of a periodized mental skills training program based on the unique needs of each athlete. Assessment of program effectiveness was conducted using four trait instruments, including: the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS), the Trait Sport Confidence Inventory (TSCI), and the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS). Case study results demonstrated enhanced mental skill knowledge and usage (TOPS ranged from 5-220%), increased trait sport confidence (TSCI = 7%) and reduced trait anxiety (SAS = 20-24%), whereas group results demonstrated 11-129% improvement on the TOPS, 9% on the TSCI and 17-23% on the SAS. These positive results provide preliminary evidence for the efficacy of a periodized model of mental training and a mental training drill menu for elite ski racers.

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the effectiveness of an intensive 2-week Mental Skill Training (MST) program designed to enhance stress management and cohesion among young lugers. Participants consisted of 38 adolescent lugers who attended one of three 2-week national training camps designed to teach athletes luge skills and strategies, with 12 MST lugers attending the first week, and 13 attention control and 15 control athletes attending Weeks 2 and 3. MST lugers attended 12 2-hour sessions designed to develop their stress management skills while enhancing individual and team task and social cohesion. The placebo group participated in four 45-minute sessions on topics unrelated to the dependent measures of interest, while control participants received no mental training. Analysis of variance results of change scores revealed that MST lugers reported significantly lower cognitive anxiety and higher group task cohesion compared to placebo and control lugers. Findings for somatic state anxiety, state self confidence, individual task cohesion, and group social cohesion demonstrated significant differences between MST lugers and one of the other groups. A post-training camp questionnaire revealed that MST lugers felt that the program was highly effective in enhancing stress management and cohesion, and a 3-month follow-up confirmed that athletes were still frequently practicing stress management skills and felt the program should become an on-going part of luge training.