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Justice Goodwin Liu and Professor Kristine Bowman have taken two very different approaches in their essays commenting on the Restatement's coverage of the law governing children's education. In 'Some Thoughts on a Developmental Approach to a Sound Basic Education', Justice Liu focuses near exclusively on the Restatement's articulation of the core educational standard, the \"sound basic education,\" and presses for an expanded application of that standard to children from birth through young adulthood. In 'The New Parents' Rights Movement, Education, and Equality', Bowman addresses the entire structure of the educational provisions of the Restatement, which straddle Part 1, \"Children in Families,\" and Part 2, \"Children in Schools,\" and warns us of the fragility of the balance between these two sources of educational control in our legal system. Attending these differences in focus are important differences in tone: Justice Liu is optimistically ambitious, calling for developments in the law that extend beyond what can currently be restated. Professor Bowman is pessimistic, predicting that the recent \"parents' rights movement\" threatens the stability of the restated law, to the detriment of children's and society's well-being. At the same time, the two pieces share important common ground. Most significantly, they share a concern about the growing polarization in our society and a belief that our system of education must play a central role in resisting this trend.

Inspired by the Supreme Court's embrace of developmental science in a series of Eighth Amendment cases, \"kids are different\" has become the rallying cry, leading to dramatic reforms in our response to juvenile crime designed to eliminate the incarceration of children and support their successful transition to adulthood. The success of these reforms represents a promising start, but the \"kids are different\" approach is built upon two flaws in the Court's developmental analysis that constrain the reach of its decisions and hide the true implications of a developmental approach. Both the text of the Court's opinions and the developmental and neuroscientific research on which the opinions rely reveal that the developmental approach is not coherently defined by the legal line between childhood and adulthood. This lack of alignment has led to calls to extend the age of juvenile exceptionalism to young adulthood. But extending the exceptionalist frame obscures the central role that immaturity plays in most offenders' full criminal careers and preserves a destructive fiction that youthful offenders are a distinctive, more sympathetic, and less corrupt subset of the millions of people charged with committing crimes. This Article argues that the developmental approach, followed to its logical conclusion, calls not for an age extension for juvenile exceptionalism but rather for a wholesale remaking of the entire criminal justice system in line with an abolitionist vision.

The present study evaluated auditory sensitivity to spectral modulation by determining the modulation depth required to detect modulation phase reversal. This approach may be preferable to spectral modulation detection with a spectrally flat standard, since listeners appear unable to perform the task based on the detection of temporal modulation. While phase reversal thresholds are often evaluated by holding modulation depth constant and adjusting modulation rate, holding rate constant and adjusting modulation depth supports rate-specific assessment of modulation processing. Stimuli were pink noise samples, filtered into seven octave-wide bands (0.125-8 kHz) and spectrally modulated in dB. Experiment 1 measured performance as a function of modulation depth to determine appropriate units for adaptive threshold estimation. Experiment 2 compared thresholds in dB for modulation detection with a flat standard and modulation phase reversal; results supported the idea that temporal cues were available at high rates for the former but not the latter. Experiment 3 evaluated spectral modulation phase reversal thresholds for modulation that was restricted to either one or two neighboring bands. Flanking bands of unmodulated noise had a larger detrimental effect on one-band than two-band targets. Thresholds for high-rate modulation improved with increasing carrier frequency up to 2 kHz, whereas low-rate modulation appeared more consistent across frequency, particularly in the two-band condition. Experiment 4 measured spectral weights for spectral modulation phase reversal detection and found higher weights for bands in the spectral center of the stimulus than for the lowest (0.125 kHz) or highest (8 kHz) band. Experiment 5 compared performance for highly practiced and relatively naïve listeners, and found weak evidence of a larger practice effect at high than low spectral modulation rates. These results provide preliminary data for a task that may provide a better estimate of sensitivity to spectral modulation than spectral modulation detection with a flat standard.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether cochlear synaptopathy can be shown to be a viable basis for age-related hearing difficulties in humans and whether it manifests as deficient suprathreshold processing of temporal and spectral modulation. Three experiments were undertaken evaluating the effects of age on (a) the auditory brainstem response as a function of level, (b) temporal modulation detection as a function of level and background noise, and (c) spectral modulation as a function of level. Across the three experiments, a total of 21 older listeners with near-normal audiograms and 29 young listeners with audiometrically normal hearing participated. The auditory brainstem response experiment demonstrated reduced Wave I amplitudes and concomitant reductions in the amplitude ratios of Wave I to Wave V in the older listener group. These findings were interpreted as consistent with an electrophysiological profile of cochlear synaptopathy. The temporal and spectral modulation detection experiments, however, provided no support for the hypothesis of compromised suprathreshold processing in these domains. This pattern of results suggests that even if cochlear synaptopathy can be shown to be a viable basis for age-related hearing difficulties, then temporal and spectral modulation detection paradigms are not sensitive to its presence.

A FDA clinical trial was carried out to evaluate the potential benefit of cochlear implant (CI) use for adults with unilateral moderate-to-profound sensorineural hearing loss. Subjects were 20 adults with moderate-to-profound unilateral sensorineural hearing loss and normal or near-normal hearing on the other side. A MED-EL standard electrode was implanted in the impaired ear. Outcome measures included: (a) sound localization on the horizontal plane (11 positions, −90° to 90°), (b) word recognition in quiet with the CI alone, and (c) masked sentence recognition with the target at 0° and the masker at −90°, 0°, or 90°. This battery was completed preoperatively and at 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months after CI activation. Normative data were also collected for 20 age-matched control subjects with normal or near-normal hearing bilaterally. The CI improved localization accuracy and reduced side bias. Word recognition with the CI alone was similar to performance of traditional CI recipients. The CI improved masked sentence recognition when the masker was presented from the front or from the side of normal or near-normal hearing. The binaural benefits observed with the CI increased between the 1- and 3-month intervals but appeared stable thereafter. In contrast to previous reports on localization and speech perception in patients with unilateral sensorineural hearing loss, CI benefits were consistently observed across individual subjects, and performance was at asymptote by the 3-month test interval. Cochlear implant settings, consistent CI use, and short duration of deafness could play a role in this result.

Having a large receptive vocabulary benefits speech-in-noise recognition for young children, though this is not always the case for older children or adults. These observations could indicate that effects of receptive vocabulary size on speech-in-noise recognition differ depending on familiarity of the target words, with effects observed only for more recently acquired and less frequent words. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate effects of vocabulary size on open-set speech-in-noise recognition for adults with normal hearing. Targets were words acquired at 4, 9, 12 and 15 years of age, and they were presented at signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) of -5 and -7 dB. Percent correct scores tended to fall with increasing age of acquisition (AoA), with the caveat that performance at -7 dB SNR was better for words acquired at 9 years of age than earlier- or later-acquired words. Similar results were obtained whether the AoA of the target words was blocked or mixed across trials. Differences in word duration appear to account for nonmonotonic effects of AoA. For all conditions, a positive correlation was observed between recognition and vocabulary size irrespective of target word AoA, indicating that effects of vocabulary size are not limited to recently acquired words. This dataset does not support differential assessment of AoA, lexical frequency, and other stimulus features known to affect lexical access.

The law routinely differentiates between minors and adults, and modifies the rights and responsibilities of minors to account for their incomplete development. It is the clear expectation of the law that children are different from adults in important ways and that, between minority and majority, individuals will acquire what they previously lacked in the experience, wisdom, and capacities required for full autonomy and culpability. But while the law is thick with expectations that children will be transformed into fully competent and culpable adults, it is thin in its account of how this transformation will occur. It fails to assign responsibility for assisting children with their transformation or to make anything hinge on whether needed assistance is provided. This inattention creates a legal regime that predictably underprepares individuals for the rights and responsibilities of adult citizenship. And when the clock runs out at the stroke of legal adulthood, the erstwhile child is left bearing the costs of any educational failings.

[...]whether small numbers can be celebrated depends on where the unnumbered offenders go and how they are treated there. [...]she notes that, unlike the federal adult system that has been sharply criticized for its disruptive impact on its state adult counterparts (I'll call this the federalism problem), the federal juvenile system has avoided this disruptive effect on the state juvenile systems.4 These distinctions are true and important. The primary recommendation of the report was for Congress to establish an official mechanism for referring cases against minors to their state juvenile courts, which was already occurring \"by arrangement\" in many districts.10 In making this recommendation, the report emphasized the special expertise of those distinct state juvenile court systems and the special parent-like role they were designed to fulfill.11 The report considered and rejected proposals to create a separate federal juvenile court system, emphasizing the excessive and unnecessary costs that would be associated with an attempt to duplicate the states' resources and expertise, and the states' special responsibility to assume a parental role over their young citizens.12 Shortly following the publication of this report, Congress enacted two laws that addressed the prosecution of minors who violated federal laws. Under the FJDA, the cases were (and are) charged by the same prosecutorial office before the same federal judges in the same federal courts as the adult cases are.18 Under these two federal laws together, federal prosecutors had authority to decide which cases involving minors got deferred to state courts, and whether the cases retained in federal court were tried as delinquency cases or adult criminal cases.19 In the years following the enactment of these laws, the number of minors tried as juvenile delinquents in federal court ranged from 600 to over 1,000 per year.20 At the time of this response, I have not found data that indicates how many additional minors were tried as adults during this period, nor how many minors, potentially tried in federal court, were deferred for state prosecution.