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Excavations at the site of Tombos at the Third Cataract in Sudan have revealed tumulus graves adjacent to Egyptian-style tombs created during the New Kingdom. These tumuli began near the end of Egypt’s imperial control of Nubia (c. 1300 BCE) and continued into the early Napatan/Third Intermediate Period (1069–750 BCE). Thirty-five tumuli from the site are analyzed in terms of superstructure, substructure, artifacts and furniture, and the individuals buried within. The combined datasets of bioarchaeological observations and mortuary practices provide an opportunity to consider the processes of cultural expression in terms of “Nubian revival” within the context of Egyptian colonial “withdrawal.” Through a theoretically informed approach, the complexity of intercultural interactions during these dynamic sociopolitical times is examined, expanding beyond the Egyptian/Nubia binary. The tumulus graves at Tombos are used to demonstrate that a diverse set of practices were used that transcend these categories. Practices are entangled with multidimensional influences that question what is considered local and foreign. With variations showing similarities and differences of structures and practices found in the region during earlier, contemporary, and later periods, an innovative group of practices is revealed.

Isotopic investigations focused on determining the mobility and provenance of ancient human civilizations and sourcing of archeological artifacts continue to gain prominence in archeology. Most studies focus on the premise that the geographic variation in isotope systems of interest (e.g., Sr, Pb, Nd, O) in the natural environment is recorded in both human hard tissues of local individuals and raw materials sourced for artifacts within the same region. The introduction of multi-collection–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) and laser ablation systems are techniques that consume smaller sample sizes compared to previous mass spectrometric approaches due to their higher ionization efficiency and increased sensitivity. This development has facilitated the isotopic measurement of trace elements present at low abundances (e.g., Pb, Nd, <1-to-low ppm range) particularly in human tooth enamel. Accurate interpretation of any isotope ratio measurement for the proveniencing of such low-abundance samples requires the adequate evaluation of post-mortem diagenetic alteration. A synopsis of practices currently in use for identifying post-mortem alteration in human archeological samples is discussed here. Post-mortem shifts in radiogenic isotope signatures resulting from secondary alteration are distinct from those potentially related to the impact of climate change on the bioavailable budgets for these elements. This topic is of interest to the archeological community and discussed here in the context of Holocene-aged samples from burial sites within the Nile River Valley System, and preferred dust source areas from the neighboring Sahara Desert.

This report is a case of a healed proximal intertrochanteric femur fracture nonunion in an ancient Nubian adult female, approximately 58 years old at the time of death, from the Tombos archaeological site in present day northern Sudan. Tombos was founded as an Egyptian colonial town during the New Kingdom Period (14001070 BC). The individual was radiocarbon dated to 1114-910 BC and also exhibited healed fractures of the left proximal humerus and ribs. There was shortening and mild atrophy of the right femur compared to the left; radiographs demonstrated a varus deformity of the proximal femur with associated retroversion. Bone density analysis revealed that the tissue mineral density z-score for this individual was −0.798, with the z-score for Tombos females 15–24 years old being 0.396, or a total difference of 1.194. This indicates that the individual was osteopenic but not osteoporotic prior to demise. This is an important case as it occurred approximately 3000 years ago and is the oldest known reported case of a healed intertrochanteric hip fracture in the archaeological literature. Archaeological cases of intertrochanteric hip fractures are rare, with none previously reported from the BC era. The timing of these multiple fractures is unknown, but all healed before the demise of the individual. Thus, there must have been considerable care afforded to such an individual to minimize the morbidities associated with nonoperative care of such a fracture. If all these fractures occurred at the same time due to a traumatic, accidental injury, the Modified Injury Severity Score (MISS) would be 25. Modern day trauma resuscitation and orthopaedic care gives an estimated mortality for such a MISS score of 28% for those <50 years old. It is likely that this individual’s high socioeconomic status allowed for intensive nursing care which likely decreased the morality risk.

As part of an intersectional investigation of changes in identity and lifeways during sociopolitical changes in the ancient Nile Valley, strontium isotope analysis has provided a useful entry for understanding local practices. At the site of Tombos, human residential mobility was spurred through Egyptian imperial actions in Nubia during the New Kingdom period (~1450–1050 B.C.). During this period, immigrants and locals interacted and influenced cultural symbols displayed in burials with migration ending with Egyptian occupation. Through the examination of multiple overlapping identities and experiences, patterns emerge. Isotopically identified locals are exclusive in tumulus graves and flexed body position (all skeletally sexed as female), consistent with the surrounding region. However, locals also used materials and practices associated with the colonizers, including pyramid, chapel, and shaft tomb types; extended body position; coffins; and artifacts. These variations provide evidence of simultaneous experiences of multiple social statuses at Tombos. The findings provide fruitful avenues to explore motivations for varying identity expression related to such ideas as family traditions, religious beliefs, gender dynamics, deliberate signaling, and the concept of foreignness. Theoretical and intersectional approaches to isotope analyses also necessitate a reassessment of methodological, analytical, and ethical issues associated with research.

Through the concept of entanglement, archaeological indications of cultural identity and skeletal evidence of biological and geographic interaction are used to explore the development of the Nubian polity who ruled as the 25th Dynasty of Egypt (Napatan period, ca. 750–656 B.C.E.). In this article, we examine the ways in which cultural and biological linkages affect the political, social, and cultural trajectories of the political entities in the ancient Nile Valley. Early studies of political developments in this region have often focused on Egypt, ignoring the aspects of power formation that may have developed independently and the long tradition of established local institutions in Nubia. The present research uses evidence from the site of Tombos, located in Upper Nubia, to investigate the processes of identity formation and population composition during the Egyptian colonial occupation and the subsequent rise of the Nubian Napatan polity. We address the impact of Egyptian and Nubian immigrants on the political developments, finding strongest support for the influence of Nubian‐Egyptian communities established in colonial times on the character of the Napatan polity. [cultural entanglement, Egypt, 25th Dynasty, Tombos, mortuary practices, state formation]

The impact of the climate drying during the Holocene within the Nile River Valley System (NRVS) has been the focus of recent debate in the archaeological community. It is argued that the increased contribution of aeolian material from the neighboring Sahara Desert during the last ~7,000 years has changed the isotope compositions of bioavailable Sr relative to the geological background and thus hinders provenance investigations of human remains within the NRVS. This study reports new trace element and strontium (Sr), neodymium (Nd), and lead (Pb) isotope compositions for a combined total of 125 samples consisting of human tooth enamel and various faunal samples from different time periods, and present-day botanical samples from 11 archaeological sites along the NRVS. The new isotope data combined with published data do not support a time-dependent increase in a Saharan aeolian bioavailable Sr component during the Holocene within the NRVS; in general, Sr isotope compositions for human enamel samples match those of their corresponding faunal matrices, and these define a similar range of isotope compositions over the various time periods. The Nd and Pb isotope compositions for human tooth enamel reported here also support the limited contribution of Saharan aeolian dust within the NVRS.

IntroductionThere is significant recent interest in femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) in orthopaedics. The etiology of the cam deformity is unknown but has been hypothesized to be due to stresses from sporting activities in our modern society. Few archeological studies exist of femora and FAI. This study reviewed proximal femoral anatomy in a skeletal collection from the ancient Nile valley archeological site at Tombos 1400-656 BC.MethodsDigital photographs of the femora were used to obtain angular measurements of the apparent neck shaft, true neck shaft, version, inclination, and α and β angles of Nötzli. All photographs were reviewed by two orthopaedic surgeons for cam and pincer lesions. Sex and age of the specimens was determined when possible. A cam lesion was defined as any femur demonstrating an α angle > 50° or when a cam deformity was seen on visual inspection by both orthopaedic surgeons. Pincer lesions were identified upon visual inspection by both orthopaedic surgeons, when the femoral neck demonstrated impaction lesions, as pelvis radiographs could not be obtained.ResultsThere were 126 unique femora; 69 female and 57 male. Age estimates were possible in 100 and was 15–24 years in 14, 25–34 years in 33, 35–49 years in 28, 50–69 years in 17, and ≥ 70 years in 8. There were nine femora (seven individuals) with cam lesions (7%) and five femora (four individuals) with pincer lesions (4%). One demonstrated a combined lesion.ConclusionFAI existed in ancient Nile valley inhabitants and is thus not only a product of modern day life style athletics. This contrasts with Native Americans living in Ohio 700–1000 AD where no FAI was identified. This difference is likely due to combinations of different types of activity, diet, and genetics. Further research of ancient populations is needed to further answer this question.Level of evidenceIV—cohort study.

Climate change is an indisputable threat to human health, especially for societies already confronted with rising social inequality, political and economic uncertainty, and a cascade of concurrent environmental challenges. Archaeological data about past climate and environment provide an important source of evidence about the potential challenges humans face and the long-term outcomes of alternative short-term adaptive strategies. Evidence from well-dated archaeological human skeletons and mummified remains speaks directly to patterns of human health over time through changing circumstances. Here, we describe variation in human epidemiological patterns in the context of past rapid climate change (RCC) events and other periods of past environmental change. Case studies confirm that human communities responded to environmental changes in diverse ways depending on historical, sociocultural, and biological contingencies. Certain factors, such as social inequality and disproportionate access to resources in large, complex societies may influence the probability of major sociopolitical disruptions and reorganizations—commonly known as “collapse.” This survey of Holocene human–environmental relations demonstrates how flexibility, variation, and maintenance of Indigenous knowledge can be mitigating factors in the face of environmental challenges. Although contemporary climate change is more rapid and of greater magnitude than the RCC events and other environmental changes we discuss here, these lessons from the past provide clarity about potential priorities for equitable, sustainable development and the constraints of modernity we must address.

Past studies of culture contact have often used the concepts of unidirectional modification of a subordinate population by a socially dominant group. Reevaluations of these ideas suggest that this paradigm is not appropriate for all situations. The examination of power relations in such alternative circumstances provides insights into human agency, as it highlights the dynamic, bidirectional interactions that can occur between two cultures. The relationship between the peoples of ancient Nubia and Egypt provides an excellent opportunity to study alternative power relations in a welldocumented cultural context. During the New Kingdom period (ca. 15501050 BC), Egypt succeeded in occupying most of Nubia. At the site of Tombos, located in northern Sudan, Egyptianization of Nubians makes it impossible to judge from textual and archaeological evidence who ruled Nubia: Egyptian colonists or Nubian leaders. Analysis of cranial measurements of individuals from Tombos and other comparable sites, in conjunction with archaeological indications of ethnicity, suggests that Tombos was inhabited by an ethnically and biologically mixed group of people who used ethnic symbols in advantageous ways.

Bioarchaeological perspectives of collapse scenarios have contributed to our understanding of the persistence and regeneration of communities after the fall of states and empires. We suggest that the osteological examination of everyday lived experience can further elucidate local lifeways during these transitory periods. Focusing on ancient Nubia after the decline of the colonial Egyptian New Kingdom Empire, we examine musculoskeletal activity patterns (entheseal changes) and traumatic injury in remains uncovered at Tombos, a cemetery at the Third Cataract of the Nile. We find evidence that entheseal changes increased at Tombos from the New Kingdom Period to the postcolonial Third Intermediate/Napatan Periods; however, accidental trauma does not significantly increase between the two periods. With regard to the elevated entheseal changes, we suggest that Nubians may have been engaged in quarrying, agropastoralism, and construction efforts. Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that this population was biologically resilient, which may have limited accidental/occupational traumatic injury. We view these changes to the Tombos quotidian experience from an agent-centered perspective; we posit that during the postcolonial period, Nubians revitalized their sociopolitical and economic systems through these everyday practices, which contributed to the independent and powerful Napatan state.