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A universal feature of metazoan sexual development is the generation of oocyte P granules that withhold certain mRNA species from translation to provide coding potential for proteins during early post-fertilization development. Stabilisation of translationally quiescent mRNA pools in female Plasmodium gametocytes depends on the RNA helicase DOZI, but the molecular machinery involved in the silencing of transcripts in these protozoans is unknown. Using affinity purification coupled with mass-spectrometric analysis we identify a messenger ribonucleoprotein (mRNP) from Plasmodium berghei gametocytes defined by DOZI and the Sm-like factor CITH (homolog of worm CAR-I and fly Trailer Hitch). This mRNP includes 16 major factors, including proteins with homologies to components of metazoan P granules and archaeal proteins. Containing translationally silent transcripts, this mRNP integrates eIF4E and poly(A)-binding protein but excludes P body RNA degradation factors and translation-initiation promoting eIF4G. Gene deletion mutants of 2 core components of this mRNP (DOZI and CITH) are fertilization-competent, but zygotes fail to develop into ookinetes in a female gametocyte-mutant fashion. Through RNA-immunoprecipitation and global expression profiling of CITH-KO mutants we highlight CITH as a crucial repressor of maternally supplied mRNAs. Our data define Plasmodium P granules as an ancient mRNP whose protein core has remained evolutionarily conserved from single-cell organisms to germ cells of multi-cellular animals and stores translationally silent mRNAs that are critical for early post-fertilization development during the initial stages of mosquito infection. Therefore, translational repression may offer avenues as a target for the generation of transmission blocking strategies and contribute to limiting the spread of malaria.

Cytoadherance of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes in the brain, organs and peripheral microvasculature is linked to morbidity and mortality associated with severe malaria. Parasite-derived P. falciparum Erythrocyte Membrane Protein 1 (PfEMP1) molecules displayed on the erythrocyte surface are responsible for cytoadherance and undergo antigenic variation in the course of an infection. Antigenic variation of PfEMP1 is achieved by in situ switching and mutually exclusive transcription of the var gene family, a process that is controlled by epigenetic mechanisms. Here we report characterisation of the P. falciparum silent information regulator's A and B (PfSir2A and PfSir2B) and their involvement in mutual exclusion and silencing of the var gene repertoire. Analysis of P. falciparum parasites lacking either PfSir2A or PfSir2B shows that these NAD(+)-dependent histone deacetylases are required for silencing of different var gene subsets classified by their conserved promoter type. We also demonstrate that in the absence of either of these molecules mutually exclusive expression of var genes breaks down. We show that var gene silencing originates within the promoter and PfSir2 paralogues are involved in cis spreading of silenced chromatin into adjacent regions. Furthermore, parasites lacking PfSir2A but not PfSir2B have considerably longer telomeric repeats, demonstrating a role for this molecule in telomeric end protection. This work highlights the pivotal but distinct role for both PfSir2 paralogues in epigenetic silencing of P. falciparum virulence genes and the control of pathogenicity of malaria infection.

The relevance of genetic factors in conferring protection to severe malaria has been demonstrated, as in the case of sickle cell trait and G6PD deficiency 1 . However, it remains unknown whether environmental components, such as dietary or metabolic variations, can contribute to the outcome of infection 2 . Here, we show that administration of a high-fat diet to mice for a period as short as 4 days impairs Plasmodium liver infection by over 90%. Plasmodium sporozoites can successfully invade and initiate replication but die inside hepatocytes, thereby are unable to cause severe disease. Transcriptional analyses combined with genetic and chemical approaches reveal that this impairment of infection is mediated by oxidative stress. We show that reactive oxygen species, probably spawned from fatty acid β-oxidation, directly impact Plasmodium survival inside hepatocytes, and parasite load can be rescued by exogenous administration of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine or the β-oxidation inhibitor etomoxir. Together, these data reveal that acute and transient dietary alterations markedly impact the establishment of a Plasmodium infection and disease outcome. Reactive oxygen species, most likely spawned from dietary-induced fatty acid β-oxidation, directly impact Plasmodium survival inside hepatocytes and sigificantly reduce liver infection.

The combination therapy of the Artemisinin-derivative Artemether (ART) with Lumefantrine (LM) (Coartem®) is an important malaria treatment regimen in many endemic countries. Resistance to Artemisinin has already been reported, and it is feared that LM resistance (LMR) could also evolve quickly. Therefore molecular markers which can be used to track Coartem® efficacy are urgently needed. Often, stable resistance arises from initial, unstable phenotypes that can be identified in vitro. Here we have used the Plasmodium falciparum multidrug resistant reference strain V1S to induce LMR in vitro by culturing the parasite under continuous drug pressure for 16 months. The initial IC(50) (inhibitory concentration that kills 50% of the parasite population) was 24 nM. The resulting resistant strain V1S(LM), obtained after culture for an estimated 166 cycles under LM pressure, grew steadily in 378 nM of LM, corresponding to 15 times the IC(50) of the parental strain. However, after two weeks of culturing V1S(LM) in drug-free medium, the IC(50) returned to that of the initial, parental strain V1S. This transient drug tolerance was associated with major changes in gene expression profiles: using the PFSANGER Affymetrix custom array, we identified 184 differentially expressed genes in V1S(LM). Among those are 18 known and putative transporters including the multidrug resistance gene 1 (pfmdr1), the multidrug resistance associated protein and the V-type H+ pumping pyrophosphatase 2 (pfvp2) as well as genes associated with fatty acid metabolism. In addition we detected a clear selective advantage provided by two genomic loci in parasites grown under LM drug pressure, suggesting that all, or some of those genes contribute to development of LM tolerance--they may prove useful as molecular markers to monitor P. falciparum LM susceptibility.

A multi-person interview on the unrolling corona pandemic with Samuel Alizon, Akiko Iwasaki, Gerard Krause and Rino Rappuoli.A multi-person interview on the unrolling corona pandemic with Samuel Alizon, Akiko Iwasaki, Gerard Krause and Rino Rappuoli.

Background Gene copy number variation (CNV) is responsible for several important phenotypes of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum , including drug resistance, loss of infected erythrocyte cytoadherence and alteration of receptor usage for erythrocyte invasion. Despite the known effects of CNV, little is known about its extent throughout the genome. Results We performed a whole-genome survey of CNV genes in P. falciparum using comparative genome hybridisation of a diverse set of 16 laboratory culture-adapted isolates to a custom designed high density Affymetrix GeneChip array. Overall, 186 genes showed hybridisation signals consistent with deletion or amplification in one or more isolate. There is a strong association of CNV with gene length, genomic location, and low orthology to genes in other Plasmodium species. Sub-telomeric regions of all chromosomes are strongly associated with CNV genes independent from members of previously described multigene families. However, ~40% of CNV genes were located in more central regions of the chromosomes. Among the previously undescribed CNV genes, several that are of potential phenotypic relevance are identified. Conclusion CNV represents a major form of genetic variation within the P. falciparum genome; the distribution of gene features indicates the involvement of highly non-random mutational and selective processes. Additional studies should be directed at examining CNV in natural parasite populations to extend conclusions to clinical settings.

A multi‐person interview on the unrolling corona pandemic with Samuel Alizon, Akiko Iwasaki, Gerard Krause and Rino Rappuoli.

Background Transmission of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum from humans to the mosquito vector requires differentiation of a sub-population of asexual forms replicating within red blood cells into non-dividing male and female gametocytes. The nature of the molecular mechanism underlying this key differentiation event required for malaria transmission is not fully understood. Methods Whole genome sequencing was used to examine the genomic diversity of the gametocyte non-producing 3D7-derived lines F12 and A4. These lines were used in the recent detection of the PF3D7_1222600 locus (encoding PfAP2-G), which acts as a genetic master switch that triggers gametocyte development. Results The evolutionary changes from the 3D7 parental strain through its derivatives F12 (culture-passage derived cloned line) and A4 (transgenic cloned line) were identified. The genetic differences including the formation of chimeric var genes are presented. Conclusion A genomics resource is provided for the further study of gametocytogenesis or other phenotypes using these parasite lines.

Doc number: P85

Developmental and cell fate decisions in many organisms are frequently made on a post-transcriptional level that involves RNA binding proteins and mechanisms of translational repression and regulation of translation of key mRNAs. In the unicellular eukaryote Plasmodium, one of the most dramatic life-cycle dependent changes in cell morphology and function occurs during transmission from the mosquito to the human host. In the mosquito salivary glands Plasmodium sporozoites remain slender, motile and infectious for several days/weeks. At this stage, Plasmodium parasites are on stand-by, awaiting injection onto the mammalian host. Immedietaly fter transmission and liver cell invasion, a remarkable differentiation process is initiated. During this process, each parasite rapidly transforms into a round, stationary exo-erythrocytic form (EEF) that expands into thousands of infectious merozoites to be released into the blood stream. Here we reveal a Plasmodium homolog of the RNA binding protein Pumilio as a key regulator of the sporozoite to EEF transition. In the absence of Pumilio-2 (Puf2), Plasmodium berghei sporozoites initiate early stage EEF development inside mosquito salivary glands, in the absence of the appropriate environmental cues. Mutant salivary gland sporozoites present reduced motility but also significantly reduced ability to invade and infect their mammalian host cells, both in vitro and in vivo. Global expression profiling confirmed that transgenic parasites exhibit genome-wide transcriptional adaptations that are typical for Plasmodium intra-hepatic development. Our data, demonstrates that Puf2 is a key player in the developmental control involved in the transition between sporozoite and EEF, implying that transformation of salivary gland-resident sporozoites into early liver stage parasites is in fact prevented by a post-translational mechanism.