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Despite regulations aimed at curbing shark finning and bycatch, shark fishing mortality rates continue to escalate, partly due to unintended consequences of these policies which, along with illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing and ghost fishing, undermine conservation efforts. The ineffectiveness of current regulations to curb shark mortality highlights the pressing need for reevaluating shark conservation strategies, especially in ecologically sensitive areas. In this context, the debate on enforcing longlining bans in multiple-use marine protected areas, including shark sanctuaries, is intensifying. Some argue for total bans to minimize incidental shark mortalities, while others highlight the socioeconomic importance of longlining, advocating for alternative conservation measures. In 2000, longline fishing was banned in the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) as a precautionary measure to prevent illegal fishing of sharks and bycatch of endangered, threatened, and protected species. After 24 years of enforcement, official and anecdotal evidence indicate that illegal small-scale tuna longlining and ghost fishing are increasing threats across the reserve. This paper provides an overview of the longline fishing controversy within the GMR, incorporating scientific evidence, legal and socioeconomic considerations, and perceptions from the Galapagos small-scale fishing community. We offer novel insights and recommendations for the development of the Galapagos small-scale tuna fishery within an ecosystem approach to fisheries. This approach aims to reconcile conservation goals with the needs of local communities, while also proposing innovative solutions to address the longstanding debate surrounding longlining in the GMR.

Assessments of the effectiveness of marine protected areas (MPAs) usually assume that fishing patterns change exclusively due to the implementation of an MPA. This assumption increases the risk of erroneous conclusions in assessing marine zoning, and consequently counter-productive management actions. Accordingly, it is important to understand how fishers respond to a combination of the implementation of no-take zones, and various climatic and human drivers of change. Those adaptive responses could influence the interpretation of assessment of no-take zone effectiveness, yet few studies have examined these aspects. Indeed, such analysis is often unfeasible in developing countries, due to the dominance of data-poor fisheries, which precludes full examination of the social-ecological outcomes of MPAs. In the Galapagos Marine Reserve (Ecuador), however, the availability of long-term spatially explicit fishery monitoring data (1997-2011) for the spiny lobster fishery allows such an analysis. Accordingly, we evaluated how the spatiotemporal allocation of fishing effort in this multiple-use MPA was affected by the interaction of diverse climatic and human drivers, before and after implementation of no-take zones. Geographic information system modelling techniques were used in combination with boosted regression models to identify how these drivers influenced fishers' behavior. Our results show that the boom-and-bust exploitation of the sea cucumber fishery and the global financial crisis 2007-09, rather than no-take zone implementation, were the most important drivers affecting the distribution of fishing effort across the archipelago. Both drivers triggered substantial macro-scale changes in fishing effort dynamics, which in turn altered the micro-scale dynamics of fishing patterns. Fishers' adaptive responses were identified, and their management implications analyzed. This leads to recommendations for more effective marine and fishery management in the Galapagos, based on improved assessment of the effectiveness of no-take zones.

Longlining represents a cost-effective fishing modality for catching tuna, but its use is contentious due to the unintended catch of endangered, threatened, and protected (ETP) species. In 2000, longlining was banned in the Galapagos Marine Reserve, Ecuador. Since then, local small-scale fishers have contested this decision. In contrast, longlining ban supporters argue that this regulation is fundamental for conserving ETP species, despite scientific and anecdotal evidence indicating that its effective implementation is unfeasible. We conducted an online survey to investigate Galapagos residents’ perceptions concerning longlining, its ecological impact, and diverse potential management strategies. Our findings revealed misconceptions about longline fishing, which highlight the need for improved public awareness and education regarding longline fishing practices, their impact on ETP species, and possible solutions to this complex social-ecological problem. Our study also highlights Galapagos residents’ openness to find a solution that addresses both fishers’ livelihoods and the conservation of ETP species. Galapagos residents are receptive to implementing evidence-based solutions, including testing new bycatch mitigation methods and more selective fishing gears, enhancing monitoring and enforcement, and creating market-based incentives that encourage progressive and adaptive improvements in fishing practices. To solve the Galapagos longline controversy, we recommend a holistic, adaptive, and evidence-based approach that encourages stakeholders to engage in open dialogue, fosters cross-sector collaboration, and promotes research, communication, and educational initiatives. By raising awareness through comprehensive, rigorous, and unbiased scientific information, this ecosystem-based management approach aims to ensure the sustainable development of the small-scale tuna fishery, while conserving the Galapagos’ invaluable and unique marine biodiversity.

The COVID-19 pandemic's early stages severely impacted global fisheries, particularly areas heavily reliant on imported food and tourism like the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. To contain the spread of the virus, a full lockdown was implemented. However, the collapse of the tourism industry precipitated the worst economic crisis in the history of this multiple-use marine protected area. This paper examines the impact of the pandemic's early stages on consumption patterns and seafood security in the Galapagos from consumers' perspective, drawing on online surveys conducted during the lockdown. Our findings revealed pre-existing seafood insecurity across the archipelago, further exacerbated by the pandemic on the least-populated island. Nevertheless, the seafood system displayed moderated resilience to the pandemic’s socioeconomic disruptions. A variety of adaptive responses were adopted by Galapagos residents to cope with the lockdown. Consumers modified their seafood consumption habits, while fishers adapted their harvesting and marketing strategies. Such adaptive responses were shaped by the unique socioeconomic characteristics of each inhabited island and the ability of seafood suppliers to shift from a tourism- and export-oriented to a resident- and domestic-oriented market. This transition has created novel opportunities to foster a systemic transformation of the Galapagos seafood system to enhance its resilience against future crises caused by new pandemics, climate change, or other natural and anthropogenic drivers of change.

Castrejón and Defeo et al. (2024) analyzed the challenges of illegal longlining and ghost fishing in the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) and proposed strategies to develop a local small-scale tuna fishery within an ecosystem-based fisheries management framework, as a sustainable alternative to overexploited coastal fisheries. Their approach aims to harmonize conservation goals with the socioeconomic needs of local communities, while presenting innovative solutions to address the ongoing debate on small-scale longlining in the GMR.In this context, Hearn and Bucaram (2025) advocated for strict conservation measures in the GMR, including maintaining the longline ban and transitioning fishers into non-extractive livelihoods. While their focus on conservation is commendable, their analysis overlooks the socioeconomic realities of Galapagos artisanal fishers, the unintended consequences of rigid policies, and the potential of adaptive fisheries co-management to improve marine conservation. This response aims to clarify misconceptions, provide a more comprehensive perspective on longlining, and highlight the importance of pragmatic, science-based conservation strategies that balance ecological and socioeconomic priorities for the sustainable management of small-scale fisheries in the GMR, ensuring marine biodiversity conservation while improving the livelihoods of fishing communities.The Galapagos tuna fishery: an unfulfilled promise Hearn and Bucaram (2025) argue that developing an offshore tuna fishery would reactivate latent fishing capacity, but this oversimplifies the issue. Our proposal focuses on redistributing, rather than expanding, fishing effort through strict regulations, monitoring, research, and adaptive comanagement. The redistribution began in the mid-2000s when fishers began to transition from illegal shark fishing to longline tuna fishing, a more stable and less risky alternative (Castrejón et al., 2021). This transition may have contributed to the stabilization of blacktip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus) populations, which declined by approximately 25% from the 1980s to the 2010s but later showed signs of recovery (Peñaherrera-Palma et al., 2018). In contrast, hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini) experienced a 50% decline with no clear signs of recovery (Peñaherrera-Palma et al., 2018), likely due to continued fishing pressure outside the GMR from national and foreign fleets (Hearn et al., 2021).Contrary to Hearn and Bucaram's assertion, the offshore tuna fishery has operated for decades. When the GMR was established in 1998, fishers supported its creation with the expectation of gaining exclusive access to seamounts within Galapagos waters, where tunas are abundant. The first GMR management plan prioritized developing a sustainable tuna fishery as a strategy to reinforce conservation commitments and reduce fishing pressure on coastal zone (DPNG, 1999) -the archipelago's most biodiverse and ecologically valuable areas, where ecosystem-based adaptation measures should be a priority (Escobar-Camacho et al., 2021). However, despite the 2003 fishing regulations supported this objective, restrictive policies and a persistent lack of political will have hindered progress, fueling frustration and a growing sense of betrayal among fishers.The Palau National Marine Sanctuary (PNMS) exemplifies a well-managed transition from nearshore reef fishing to offshore tuna fisheries, redirecting fishing effort to benefit both conservation and livelihoods (Dacks et al., 2020;Filous et al., 2020). This transition was driven by policies that reduced reef fishing pressure while supporting fishers through investments in Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs), alongside regulations requiring all tuna caught within Palau's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to be landed and processed domestically (MNRET, 2019;Filous et al., 2020). However, challenges such as limited local fishing capacity, high operational costs, and competition with foreign fleets, have hindered the full realization of these benefits (Dacks et al., 2020). Palau promotes selective methods like pole-and-line, handline, and trolling as alternatives to FAD-based purse seine or longline operations. However, small-scale longlining is allowed in the Domestic Fishing Zone of the PNMS (20% of the EEZ) under strict regulations, prohibiting shark targeting, wire leaders, and FAD use, and requiring onboard observers or electronic monitoring (MNRET, 2019). Compliance is enforced through Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) and patrols. Thus, longlining in Palau is tightly controlled to balance domestic food security and economic benefits with conservation goals. The cases of the PNMS and GMR highlight the need to strengthen local small-scale fishing capacity to sustainably access offshore tuna resources as an alternative to nearshore fishing.Hearn and Bucaram criticize longlining for its bycatch risks, but the ban has not eradicated the practice-it has merely driven it underground, making it unregulated and harder to control (Castrejón et al., 2021;Montaño, 2022). Legal, institutional, and socioeconomic factors prevent the ban from fully eliminating illegal longlining and ghost-fishing (Castrejón and Defeo, 2024). Scientific advancements in bycatch mitigation techniques, such as circle hooks, non-wire leaders, and mid-water longlining, have reduced bycatch of protected species from a maximum of 77.5% (Murillo et al., 2004) to a minimum of 6% (CTI, 2018) within the GMR. Yet, these improvements are often overlooked in policy discussions. A rigid ban that disregards scientific and technological progress undermines conservation goals.We propose an ecosystem approach to fisheries to enhance the sustainability of longlining by integrating bycatch mitigation techniques, dynamic spatial management, and market incentives through a decision-support tool designed for the holistic management of bycatch. A regulated tuna fishery, rather than an ineffective total ban, would improve monitoring and reduce environmental impacts through gear modifications, electronic surveillance, and traceability. Conservation policies should prioritize science-based solutions over maintaining the illusion of a longline-free Galapagos, which have failed to address illegal fishing, probably exacerbating threats like ghost fishing.Misusing the precautionary principle to justify ineffective policies Hearn and Bucaram (2025) invoke the precautionary principle to justify the longline ban. However, its application must be proportional to the risk of irreversible harm to vulnerable and endangered species while also allowing for adaptive co-management. They dismiss longlining without conducting an ecological risk assessment, as we have recommended, or acknowledging advancements in bycatch mitigation techniques. A growing body of research demonstrates that circle hooks, weighted lines, operational adjustments, bycatch limits, emerging technologies, and time-area restrictions significantly reduce bycatch (Gillett, 2011;Clarke et al., 2014;Hall et al., 2017;Swimmer et al., 2020;Doherty et al., 2022;Shea et al., 2023). Rather than outright rejection, pilot programs should be implemented to assess whether a small-scale, well-regulated longline fishery could operate sustainably within the GMR.The precautionary principle should not be used to justify indefinite bans in the absence of updated ecological risk assessments. Instead, it should be applied dynamically, fostering innovation and adaptive co-management. A rigid, permanent prohibition disregards scientific advancements and overlooks the potential for sustainable longlining under strict regulatory oversight.A concerning issue is the suppression of research on longlining, often justified by the claim that this fishing gear is inherently incompatible with multiple-use MPAs or shark sanctuaries. This perspective is not supported by scientific literature or global fisheries management practices (Simpfendorfer and Dulvy, 2017;Filous et al., 2020;Shea et al., 2023). However, more than 80% of Galapagos residents share the perception that longlining is destructive, while 26% oppose it even if bycatch were reduced to zero (Castrejón and Defeo, 2023). These misconceptions prevent an objective evaluation of controlled longlining's sustainability. Scientific transparency should take precedence over ideological biases or public perception. Authorities and NGOs should support pilot programs to rigorously assess the environmental, economic, and social impacts of longlining under strict, continuous monitoring, in collaboration with fishers. Conservation efforts should be driven by robust, evidence-based research rather than political narratives or branding.Hearn and Bucaram's \"Blue Vision\" proposes shifting fishers to non-extractive roles, such as plastic collectors, research service providers, and marine educators. While this approach aligns with conservation goals, it overlooks the cultural significance of fishing and the deep social and economic ties that sustain small-scale fishing communities (El-Shayeb et al., 2025). Research on the human dimensions of MPAs shows that alternative livelihoods often fail when they do not align with local values, economic realities, and social capital (Pollnac et al., 2001;Charles and Wilson, 2009;Christie et al., 2017). Displacing fishers into unfamiliar livelihoods without considering their existing adaptive strategies, social networks, and economic realities can undermine their resilience, increasing vulnerability, loss of identity, and distrust in conservation initiatives (Allison and Ellis, 2001). The failure of recreational fishing (pesca artesanal vivencial) highlights these risks. Promoted since 2005 as a sustainable alternative, it has primarily benefited tourism agencies and non-fishers, sidelining local full-time fishers, while sport fishing has become more prevalent, failing to provide a sustainable livelihood alternative for the fishing sector (Schu

Small-scale fisheries (SSFs) are social-ecological systems that play a critical role in terms of food security and poverty alleviation in Latin America. These fisheries are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic and climatic drivers acting at multiple scales. We review the effects of climate variability on Latin American SSFs, and discuss the combined effects of two additional human drivers: globalization of markets and governance. We show drastic long-term and large-scale effects of climate variability, e.g., sea surface temperature anomalies, wind intensity, sea level, and climatic indices, on SSFs. These variables, acting in concert with economic drivers, have exacerbated stock depletion rates in Latin American SSFs. The impact of these drivers varied according to the life cycle and latitudinal distribution of the target species, the characteristics of the oceanographic systems, and the inherent features of the social systems. Our review highlights the urgent need to improve management and governance systems to promote resilience as a way to cope with the increasing uncertainty about the impacts of climate and globalization of markets on Latin American SSFs.

Many small-scale fisheries (SSFs) in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) operate in ecologically sensitive areas, where balancing conservation and resource use is challenging. 'Multiple-use' marine protected areas (MPAs) have been implemented to accommodate SSFs (among other uses) within areas designated for conservation, creating opportunities and challenges for SSF governance. We analyzed eleven case studies from LAC to explore: (1) how different MPA institutional designs affect key aspects of SSF governance and (2) the links between these effects and the type of initiative that promoted MPA establishment (origin). Results indicate that the existence of an MPA benefited SSF governance in many ways, with more pronounced positive effects in MPAs with mixed to bottom-up origin supported by well-organized fishing groups. In addition, the presence of supportive MPA authorities that leveraged local capacities and initiatives and adopted flexible and collaborative governance systems made a difference in several cases. Lessons for integrating MPA and SSF governance are drawn.