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In Coffea arabica L., the processes of flowering and fruiting unfold over time as a series of phenological events influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors. This sequence governs the plant’s reproductive cycle, directly affecting vegetative growth, crop productivity, and beverage quality. This review comprehensively addresses the developmental phases and provides descriptions of flower and fruit morphology, factors influencing flowering and fruiting, and competition for resource allocation, all of which are approached from a phenological perspective informed by the extended Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and CHemical industry (BBCH) scale. The structural and emerging challenges that affect the sustainability of coffee cultivation should be effectively addressed to provide a foundation that supports the design of integrated strategies for the optimization of agronomic practices, increased yield, and genetic improvement.

The physiopathy of the oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) called “duster” whose causal agent is unknown is characterized by abnormality in the development of the leaf and longitudinal chlorotic streaking parallel to the midrib. Dissections of plants affected by this disease show no signs at first sight. Therefore, the objective was to explore and evaluate the relationship between some chemical and physical properties of the soils and the content of some elements in the leaves with the presence of physiopathy. Sampling was done of leaflets and the surrounding soil in an oil palm plantation located on the northern coast of Colombia. For the analysis of the data from the foliar analyses, a logistic regression model was used with training and test data. The predictions were contrasted with statistics obtained from the soil data, finding that the affected palms had low S, B and high Fe content in the leaves compared to healthy palms, in addition to obvious differences probably attributable to the K/Mo relationships, Mo/Se, and Z/S. None of these relationships showed a pattern with available soil information.

Non-destructive measurement of leaf size based on leaf length and/or width is a simple, economical, and precise methodology. Leaf morphometric indicators were measured on 55 coffee progenies obtained from intraspecific and interspecific crosses. The estimation of parameters in the models and the testing of hypotheses related to these were performed. The relationships between leaf width and length, the ellipticity index, and leaf size were subsequently analyzed with a partitioning algorithm. The groups were then compared using Hotelling’s T2 test. In coffee, the Montgomery model allowed for an adequate estimation of leaf size for each progeny, hybridization type, and grouped data. An α value of 0.67000 for the Montgomery model was consistent. This finding indicates that it is a suitable model for both individual and groups of progenies. The model based on the “principle of similarity” was found to be suitable only on a per-progeny basis. Certain characteristics, such as the leaf width-to-length ratio, ellipticity index, and leaf size, modify the parameter fit to inherent values. Similarly, leaves with a higher width-to-length ratio were the most elliptical for coffee, according to the groupings found. The estimation of coffee leaf size improves if the selected model considers whether they come from specific progenies or groups of progenies.

In the banana crop, leaf area is a fundamental trait for production; however, monitoring this variable during a cycle is difficult due to the structural characteristics of the plant, and a method for its determination is necessary. Therefore, the objective of this research was to propose a model for estimating total leaf area by measuring the cross-sectional area of the pseudostem to identify when meristematic differentiation occurs. In plants between F10 and flowering, functional leaves were measured for length, width, and dry mass. Cross-sectional area was calculated every 10 cm from the base to 70 cm, at ⅓, ½ of the plant height and up to the last pair of leaves. From the principal components, the cross-sectional measurement at 50 cm was selected, obtaining a nonlinear model for indirect estimation of leaf area. Subsequently, Fisher’s linear discriminant analysis was used with the parameters associated with the number of leaves emitted and the estimated leaf area to obtain the cutoff point as the centroid of the extracted components. As an indicator for the approximate identification of the moment of meristem differentiation, the emission of leaf 12 was generated, which determines the phenological stage (vegetative-reproductive) of the plant. The results describe tools to follow up the growth in the productive units to facilitate crop monitoring, allowing the generation of differential production approaches.

Morphological traits expressed by plants result from genotype, the environment where they grow, and the interaction between genotype and environment. These traits are expressed according to the plant’s physiological responses to various environmental stimuli. A comparative evaluation was conducted on the main morphological traits of 20 inbred lines from Semillas Valle S.A. hybrid maize breeding program in Colombia. Correlations were found between some traits using a principal component analysis (PCA), where the two main components were plotted in a two-dimensional scatter diagram, and the results were corroborated using Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Significant relationships were observed between male flowering time (DTT) and female flowering time (DTS), between plant height (PH) and ear height (EH), and between plant height (PH) and the internode number (IN). No relationships were found between ear height (EH) and number of rows (NR), or between ear weight (EW) and leaf length (LL) or seed index (SI). Los rasgos morfológicos expresados por las plantas son la respuesta a su genotipo, el ambiente donde se desarrollan y la interacción del genotipo y el ambiente. Dichos rasgos se expresan de acuerdo con las respuestas fisiológicas de las plantas a los distintos estímulos ambientales. Se realizó una evaluación comparativa de los principales rasgos morfológicos de 20 líneas endocriadas pertenecientes al programa de mejoramiento de maíz híbrido de Semillas Valle S.A. en Colombia. Se encontraron correlaciones entre algunos de los rasgos evaluados a  partir de un análisis de componentes principales (ACP), cuyos dos principales componentes fueron graficados en un diagrama de dispersión de dos dimensiones, y sus resultados corroborados a partir de un coeficiente de correlación de Pearson. Se observaron relaciones significativas entre tiempos de floración masculina (DFM) y femenina (DFF), entre altura de la planta (AP) y altura de la mazorca (AM), y entre la altura de la planta (AP) y el número de entrenudos (NE). No se encontraron relaciones entre la altura de la mazorca (AM) y el número de hileras (NHM) ni entre el peso de mazorca (PM) y la longitud de hojas (LH) o el índice de semilla (IS).

El disturbio del plumero en palma de aceite se caracteriza por una anormalidad en el desarrollo del área foliar, el amarillamiento de las hojas jóvenes y el rayado clorótico longitudinal paralelo a la nervadura central. En esta investigación se determinó el área foliar de la hoja 17, el área foliar específica, los contenidos de clorofilas y la masa seca de raíces en una plantación de palma de aceite (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) en la costa norte de Colombia con el objetivo de caracterizar los daños morfofisiológicos y cuantificar la severidad del disturbio. Para el análisis estadístico se realizó un modelo de regresión ordinal y pruebas de análisis de varianzas. Los resultados indicaron que la palma reduce su área foliar antes de que el disturbio sea evidente a nivel visual. Las hojas se vuelven más gruesas con menor contenido de clorofilas. También se presentó un aumento de la masa seca de raíces terciarias y cuaternarias en los grados iniciales. Esta variable disminuyó en los grados más severos del disturbio.

This research determined the effect of four nitrogen (N) doses on the nutritional behavior of (N), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), respectively, in banana Williams, during five plant development stages and two productive cycles. The treatments were as follows: 1) absolute control, 2) 0 N, 3) 161 kg N ha-1, 4) 321.8 kg N ha-1 and 5) 483 kg N ha-1, respectively. A multivariate approach of the differences among cycles was used to adjust the models and eliminate their individual effect, with a randomized complete block design with repeated measurements over time. There were significant differences among plant development stages, with an increase in nutrient accumulation in the banana plant, there were no differences among treatments or blocks, nor in the interaction block by treatment, but the dose of 321.8 kg of N, exhibited a fructification increase in terms of N accumulation, harvest was exceeded by the dose of 483 kg of nitrogen, Ca and Mg, were the other nutrients, which showed effect at the dose of 483 kg of N but increasing only to harvest. It was concluded that high doses of nitrogen showed a trend to increase nutrient accumulation during the development of the banana plant, but especially until fructification, with the exception of Ca and Mg, which achieved the greatest accumulation in harvest.

The effect of the selective removal of leaves at flowering on yield, growth, maturity and quality of Grand Nain banana fruits was evaluated. The present study was conducted in three regions of Urabá (Colombia) with precipitation low (experiment 1), medium (experiment 2) and high (experiment 3). The experimental design used randomized complete blocks, four treatments (6, 8, 10 and 12 leaves from the start of flowering) and three replications. Every 15 days, the thickness (cm) and length (cm) of central fruit from the second hand were measured and two fruits were taken to record fresh weight and dry weight. At harvest, leaf number, bunch weight (kg), and the thickness (cm) and length (cm) of central fruit from the second hand were measured. During fruit ripening (8 and 15 days), the contents of starch and sugars in the pulp were determined. The thickness and length of the fruit, bunch weight and the boxstem ratio were not affected (P<0.05) by selectively removing leaves. The percentages of total sugars and starch during fruit ripening were unchanged (P<0.05) as a result of the number of functional leaves. These results suggest that in banana cultivation, it is possible to leave less than 12 leaves at flowering without affecting fruit quality or postharvest ripening. / Se evaluó el efecto de la eliminación selectiva de hojas a la floración sobre la producción, crecimiento, maduración y calidad de los frutos de banano Gran Enano. El estudio se realizó en tres zonas de Urabá (Colombia), con precipitación baja (experimento 1), media (experimento 2) y alta (experimento 3). Se usó un diseño de bloques completamente al azar, cuatro tratamientos (6, 8, 10 y 12 hojas desde el inicio de floración) y tres repeticiones. Cada 15 días se midieron el grosor (cm) y la longitud (cm) del fruto central de la segunda mano y se tomaron dos frutos más para registrar el peso fresco y el peso seco. A la cosecha se midieron el número de hojas, el peso del racimo (kg), el grosor (cm) y la longitud (cm) del fruto central de la segunda mano. Durante la maduración de los frutos (8 y 15 días) se determinaron los contenidos de almidón y azúcares en la pulpa. El grosor y la longitud del fruto, peso del racimo y la cantidad de cajas a partir de un racimo (ratio), no fueron afectados (P<0,05) por la eliminación selectiva de hojas. Los porcentajes de almidón y azúcares totales durante la maduración de los frutos no variaron (P<0,05) como consecuencia del número de hojas funcionales presentes. Estos resultados sugieren que en el cultivo de banano, es posible dejar las plantas con menos de 12 hojas desde la floración sin que se afecte la calidad de los frutos o su maduración en poscosecha.

The OxG hybrid bunches contain more parthenocarpic fruits (PF) than normal fruits (NF) and present problems of development and ripening due to either an asynchronous opening of flowers or insufficient pollination. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and gibberellic acid (GA3) in the induction and development of PF and NF, the fatty acid profile (FAP), and the oil potential in the ‘Coari x La Mé’ oil palm hybrid. NAA and GA3 induced parthenocarpy in the fruits and did not alter the FAP of the mesocarp oil. The commercial dose of pollen (0.9 g talc + 0.1 g pollen) resulted in increased bunch weight (BW) (20.8 kg) and lower percentage of PF in the bunch (65.4%). The most effective hormonal doses to induce the formation of PF in the bunch were NAA 300 and 600 mg L-1. GA3 alone or in mixture with NAA increased the percentage of PF but did not increase the BW, indicating that GA3 had no synergistic effect on BW. The NAA applications represent alternatives to complement assisted pollination of OxG hybrids to increase bunch production and oil yield.

RESUMEN Mycosphaerella fijiensis M. Morelet, es uno de los agentes causales del “complejo Sigatoka”, el cual, es la enfermedad más destructiva en los cultivos de banano y plátano. En el presente trabajo, se modeló espacialmente mediante técnicas geoestatísticas, la hoja más joven manchada (HMJM), como variable biológica indicadora del estado de severidad de la enfermedad en la plantación, con el objetivo de determinar su estructura y categoría de dependencia espacial. La HMJM se evaluó en las semanas 43, 45, 46 y 47 de 2005, em 71 plantas de banano cv. Gran Enano con emisión reciente de su inflorescencia, ubicadas en las intersecciones de una malla irregular, con una distancia mínima entre pares de plantas de 21 m y una distancia máxima de 1077 m, en una finca bananera situada en el municipio de Carepa (Antioquia), zona de vida bosque húmedo tropical (bh-T). La variable presentó un comportamiento anisotrópico para las semanas 45, 46 y 47; éste, se describió a partir de un modelo gaussiano en cada una de las semanas, con un rango de dependencia espacial decreciente de 673.25, 345.53 y 296.36 m, respectivamente, el cual diverge de los modelos reportados en otras investigaciones en patosistemas similares. Los modelos que se ajustaron para las semanas 45 y 47, evidenciaron fuerte dependencia espacial; el modelo de la semana 46, moderada dependencia espacial y el modelo de la semana 43, nula dependencia espacial. RESUMO Mycosphaerella fijiensis M. Moleret é um dos agentes causadores do “complexo Sigatoka”, o qual é a doença mais destrutiva na cultura da banana e do plátano. No presente trabalho, foi modelada espacialmente, mediante técnicas geoestadisticas, a folha mais jovem manchada (FMJM) como a variável biológica indicadora da severidade da doença na cultura, com o objetivo de determinar a sua estrutura e categoria de dependência espacial. A FMJM foi avaliada nas semanas 43, 45, 46 e 47 de 2005, sobre 71 plantas de bananeira cultivar Gran Enano com emissão recente da inflorescência. Demarcou-se, no campo, uma malha irregular, com uma distância mínima entre pares de plantas de 21 m e uma distância máxima de 1077 m, numa fazenda, localizada no Município de Carepa (Antioquia), região de floresta úmida tropical (fu-T). A variável apresentou um comportamento anisotrópico para as semanas 45, 46 e 47, foi descrito a partir de um modelo Gaussiano em cada uma das semanas, com uma gama de dependência espacial decrescente de 673.25, 345.53 y 296.36 m, respectivamente, o que diverge dos modelos reportados em outras pesquisas, em patossistemas similares. Os modelos que se ajustaram para as semanas 45 e 47, mostraram forte dependência espacial; o modelo da semana 46, moderada dependência espacial e o modelo da semana 43, sem dependência espacial.