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This article applies scientometric techniques to study the evolution of the field of entrepreneurship between 1990 and 2013. Using a combination of topic mapping, author and journal co-citation analyses, and overlay visualization of new and hot topics in the field, this article makes important contribution to the entrepreneurship research by identifying 46 topics in the 24-year history of entrepreneurship research and demonstrates how they appear, disappear, reappear and stabilize over time. It also identifies five topics that are persistent across the 24-year study period--institutions and institutional entrepreneurship, innovation and technology management, policy and development, entrepreneurial process and opportunity, and new ventures--which I labeled as The Pentagon of Entrepreneurship. Overall, the analyses revealed patterns of convergence and divergence and the diversity of topics, specialization, and interdisciplinary engagement in entrepreneurship research, thus offering the latest insights on the state of the art of the field.

This article investigates two important research gaps in international business (IB): how entrepreneurs evaluate international entrepreneurial opportunities (IEOs) and the role of time in the evaluation process. Drawing on the literature on decision-making models and the philosophical foundation of opportunity, this study employs Gioia's methodology and content analysis to examine how the founders of 15 early-internationalizing firms evaluated IEOs in the early- and late-stage of internationalization. The findings reveal that the interaction of time and three general rules of IEO evaluation that I coin 'simple', 'revised', and 'complex' influenced the entrepreneurs' decisions. The findings show that the founders transitioned from simple to revised and to complex rules in the IEO evaluation process and that various contingent factors such as time pressure, resource availability, and type of stakeholders drove these transitions. The three general rules correspond to what I label as 'opportunity actualization', 'revision', and 'development maximization' processes, respectively. I propose a Timebased Process model that reconciles extant internationalization models' (i.e., Process, Network, Economics, and Entrepreneurship) different explanations regarding why and how firms internationalize.

The opportunity has become a central concept in International Entrepreneurship (IE) literature, and there is now a critical mass of literature focused on entrepreneurial behaviors of pursuing opportunities across national borders. However, scholars claim that research on these opportunity-related behaviors should consider a multilevel analysis where the interaction between the contexts, entrepreneurial action, and the opportunities can be clarified. From a multilevel analysis, the present study aims to understand antecedents, processes, and outcomes of opportunity-driven behaviors in the IE field. By conducting a systematic literature review, we analyze studies over the last 30 years (1989–2019). We found that the IE research around opportunities and related behaviors, far from suffering paucity and a weak conceptual basis, is abundant and is broadening its territory and boundaries. This study makes four contributions. First, we extend opportunity-related research in IE literature by considering a multilevel approach that incorporates individual, firm, and environmental aspects. Second, we offer an integrative model that outlines the antecedents, processes, and outcomes of opportunity-driven behaviors. Third, we suggest a definition of the IE field and the opportunity concept that can enrich the international opportunity debate, as well as its theoretical discussion. Fourth, we present theoretical contributions by identifying past advances and directions for future research.

The possible existence of a research-practice gap is the topic of a long-standing debate in the field of public administration. In this Viewpoint essay, the authors examine the agendas of scholars and practitioners using the topic modeling technique of computational social science. Topic modeling a content analysis of 35 topics identified in Public Administration Review and PA Times (3,796 articles) showed that just over 50 percent of topics were common to both groups, indicating shared interests. There were, however, topics that the two groups distinctly focused on. Moreover, scholars and practitioners attached significant differences to the weights allocated to the prominent topics in their writing. Taken together, these findings indicate that topic modeling can shed new light on the research-practice gap in public administration.

Despite the burgeoning research on social enterprise (SE), there is a dearth of research that investigates the biographical factors that influence the emergence of SEs in the form of hybrid organizations on a large scale. Drawing on the emerging narrative perspective of SE, we examine the biographical narratives of 317 self-identified social entrepreneurs who were selected as fellows by two of the world's largest SE support organizations: Ashoka and the Schwab Foundation. We employ Gioia's methodology and principal component analysis to derive and subsequently classify the biographical antecedents of SE emergence. This study makes a novel contribution to the SE-as-hybrid-organization literature by revealing eight biographical antecedents of SE emergence, four of which can be categorized into social skills, and four others can be categorized into economic skills, which constitute SE's social position. We also develop a typology of SE based on different combinations of individuals' social skills and social position. Finally, we discuss the implications of this study for the SE-as-hybrid-organization literature, highlight its limitations, and present possible avenues for future research. Malgré les recherches de plus en plus nombreuses sur les entreprises sociales (ES), trop peu enquêtent sur les facteurs biographiques qui influencent l'émergence des ES en tant qu'organismes hybrides de grande échelle. En s'inspirant du point de vue narratif émergent des ES, nous étudions les faits biographiques exposés par 317 entrepreneurs sociaux déclarés, qui ont été faits membres de deux des plus grandes organisations de soutien des ES au monde : Ashoka et la Fondation Schwab. Nous employons la méthode de Gioia et une analyse des principaux éléments concernés pour dériver et subséquemment classer les antécédents biographiques de l'émergence des ES. La présente étude fait une contribution inédite à la documentation sur les organismes d'entreprise sociale hybrides en révélant huit antécédents biographiques de l'émergence des ES, dont quatre pouvant être classés sous la rubrique compétences sociales et quatre sous compétences économiques, représentant ainsi le positionnement social des ES. Nous avons aussi élaboré une typologie des ES en fonction de diverses combinaisons de compétences et positions sociales individuelles. Nous discutons enfin des implications de cette étude dans le contexte de la documentation sur les organismes ES hybrides, en soulignant ses limites et présentant de possibles voies de recherche futures. Trotz zunehmender Forschungen zu Sozialunternehmen mangelt es an Studien, die die biographischen Faktoren in großem Umfang untersuchen, welche die Entstehung von Sozialunternehmen in Form von Hybridorganisationen beeinflussen. Wir stützen uns auf die neu hervortretende Erzählperspektive von Sozialunternehmen und untersuchen die biographischen Schilderungen von 317 selbstidentifizierten Sozialunternehmern, die von zwei der weltweit größten Organisationen zur Unterstützung von Sozialunternehmen - Ashoka und Schwab Foundation - als Partner gewählt wurden. Wir wenden die Gioia-Methode und Hauptkomponentenanalyse an, um die biographischen Antezedenzien für die Entstehung von Sozialunternehmen abzuleiten und anschließend zu klassifizieren. Diese Studie leistet einen ganz neuen Beitrag zur Literatur zum Thema Sozialunternehmen als Hybridorganisationen, indem sie acht biographische Antezedenzien für die Entstehung von Sozialunternehmen aufdeckt, von denen vier als soziale Fertigkeiten und die anderen vier als ökonomische Fertigkeiten klassifiziert werden können, die die soziale Stellung eines Sozialunternehmens begründen. Darüber hinaus entwickeln wir eine Typologie für Sozialunternehmen beruhend auf verschiedenen Kombinationen aus den sozialen Fertigkeiten einzelner Personen und der sozialen Stellung. Abschließend diskutieren wir die Implikationen dieser Studie für die Literatur zum Thema Sozialunternehmen als Hybridorganisationen, heben die Beschränkungen hervor und präsentieren mögliche zukünftige Forschungsrichtungen. A pesar de la floreciente investigación sobre la empresa social (SE, por sus siglas en inglés), existe una escasez de investigación que estudie los factores biogrâficos que influyen en el surgimiento de SE en la forma de organizaciones hibridas a gran escala. Recurriendo a la perspectiva narrativa emergente de la SE, examinamos las narrati vas biogrâficas de 317 emprendedores sociales que se identificaron corno tales y que fueron seleccionados corno miembros por dos de las organizaciones de apoyo a las SE más grandes del mundo: Ashoka y la Schwab Foundation. Empleamos la metodología de Gioia y el análisis de componentes principales para derivar y clasificar posteriormente los antecedentes biográficos del surgimiento de la SE. El presente estudio realiza una novedosa contribución al material publicado sobre la SE corno organización hibrida revelando ocho antecedentes biográficos del surgimiento de la SE, cuatro de los cuales pueden ser clasificados en habilidades sociales, y otros cuatro pueden ser clasificados en habilidades económicas, que constituyen la posición social de la SE. También desarrollamos una tipologia de SE basada en diferentes combinaciones de habilidades sociales y posición social de los individuos. Finalmente, tratamos las implicaciones del presente estudio para el material publicado sobre la SE corno organizacion hibrida, destacamos sus limitaciones y presentamos posibles vias para investigaciones futuras.

Social enterprises (SEs) have an increasingly important role in developing more equitable societies worldwide. The capabilities of SEs are an important driver of their performance, but research in this area is still emerging, and the link between capabilities and performance has yet to be examined. By drawing on the dynamic capabilities perspective, it is suggested in this study that absorptive capacity—an organization’s ability to absorb, assimilate, and apply knowledge—affects a SE’s performance indirectly via its marketing capabilities. Using data from Hong Kong and Taiwanese social enterprises (n = 109), a set of hypotheses related to the capabilities– performance linkage were tested. The results show that the marketing capabilities of SEs mediated the relationship between absorptive capacity and financial performance. However, absorptive capacity was not associated with improved social performance via marketing capabilities. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of the findings and directions for future research.

Despite the burgeoning research on social entrepreneurship (SE), SE strategies remain poorly understood. Drawing on extant research on the social activism and social change, empowerment and SE models, we explore, classify and validate the strategies used by 2,334 social entrepreneurs affiliated with the world's largest SE support organization, Ashoka. The results of the topic modeling of the social entrepreneurs' strategy profiles reveal that they employed a total of 39 change-making strategies that vary across resources (material versus symbolic strategies), specificity (general versus specific strategies), and mode of participation (mass versus elite participation strategies); they also vary across fields of practice and time. Finally, we identify six meta-SE strategies-a reduction from the 39 strategies-and identify four new meta-SE strategies (i.e., system reform, physical capital development, evidence-based practices, and prototyping) that have been overlooked in prior SE research. Our findings extend and deepen the research into SE strategies and offer a comprehensive model of SE strategies that advances theory, practice and policy making.

Social entrepreneurship (SE) is gaining increasing legitimacy as a form of ethical business practice and a solution to various societal challenges. Despite the burgeoning interest in SE in the realms of ethical business scholarship and business ethics education, new pedagogical developments have been limited. To advance SE pedagogy, we produced a new multimedia-based tool consisting of two SE-focused comics and evaluated their efficacy in “winning the hearts and shaping the minds” of learners in an experimental setting. We tested the effects of the two comics individually. Comic #1, a story of a gambling addict who transforms into a social entrepreneur, was used to examine the effects of using a comic on learners’ engagement and cognitive enhancement, while comic #2, a story of a teenage academic misfit who finds her passion in crafting objects and establishes a social enterprise, was used to interrogate the effects of using a comic on the relationship among SE self-efficacy, SE intent, and entrepreneurial passion. We also collected qualitative feedback in the form of learners’ comments about the second comic. Our results supported the two proposed models and suggested that comics show promise in enhancing SE teaching and learning. Our new contribution consists of the theoretical relationships examined in the models, our insights into why comics can be beneficial to learners, the scholarly artistic contribution of the comics, and the use of an experimental approach. We end the article with suggestions for designing, implementing, and evaluating future multimedia-based pedagogy in SE and ethical business teaching and learning.

Purpose Qualitative research suffers from “contestation” and a lack of “boilerplate” problems to assessing and presenting qualitative data, which have hampered its development and the broader acceptance of qualitative research. This paper aims to address this gap by marrying the constructivist methodology and RQDA, a relatively new open-source computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS)-based R extension and demonstrate how the software can increase the rigor, transparency and validity of qualitative research. Design/methodology/approach This paper highlights the constructivist approach as an important paradigm in qualitative research and demonstrates how it can be operationalized and enhanced using RQDA. It provides a technical and methodological review of RQDA, along with its main strengths and weaknesses, in relation with two popular CAQDAS tools, ATLAS.ti and NVivo. Using samples of customer-generated e-complaints and e-praises in the electronics/computer sector, this paper demonstrates the development of a process model of customer e-complaint rhetoric. Findings This study offers step-by-step instructions for installing and using RQDA for data coding, aggregation, plotting and theory building. It emphasizes the importance of techniques for sharing coding outputs among researchers and journal gatekeepers to better disseminate and share research findings. It also describes the authors’ use of RQDA in classrooms of undergraduates and graduate students. Research limitations/implications This paper addresses the “contestation” and “boilerplate” gaps, offering practical, step-by-step instructions to operationalize and enhance the constructivist approach using the RQDA-based approach. This opens new opportunities for existing R users to “cross over” to analyzing textual data as well as for computer-savvy scholars, analysts and research students in academia and industry who wish to transition to CAQDAS-based qualitative research because RQDA is free and can leverage the strengths of the R computing platform. Originality/value This study offers the first published review and demonstration of the RQDA-based constructivist methodology that provide the processes needed to enhance the rigor, transparency and validity of qualitative research. It demonstrates the systematic development of a data structure and a process model of customer e-complaint rhetoric using RQDA.

Purpose This paper aims to extend the understanding of the ways in which social entrepreneurs give sense to and legitimize their work by introducing a rhetoric-orientation view of social entrepreneurship (SE). Design/methodology/approach This study uses computer-aided text analysis and computational linguistics to study 191 interviews of social and business entrepreneurs. It offers validation and exploration of new concepts pertaining to the rhetoric orientations of SE. Findings This study confirms prior untested assumptions that the rhetoric of social entrepreneurs is more other, stakeholder engagement and justification-oriented and less self-oriented than the rhetoric of business entrepreneurs. It also confirms that the rhetoric of both types of entrepreneurs is equally economically oriented. Originality/value This research makes new contribution to the SE literature by introducing three new orientations, namely, solution, impact and geographical, which reflect distinctive rhetorical themes used by social entrepreneurs, and by revealing that social entrepreneurs use terms associated with other, stakeholder engagement, justification, economic, solution, impact and geographical orientations differently than business entrepreneurs.