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Documenting and exploring the patterns of diversity of life on Earth has always been a central theme in biology. Species richness despite being the most commonly used measure of diversity in macroecological studies suffers from not considering the evolutionary and ecological differences among species. Phylogenetic diversity (PD) and functional diversity (FD) have been proposed as alternative measures to overcome this limitation. Although species richness, PD and FD are closely related, their relationships have never been investigated on a global scale. Comparing PD and FD with species richness corroborated the general assumptions of surrogacy of the different diversity measures. However, the analysis of the residual variance suggested that the mismatches between the diversity measures are influenced by environmental conditions. PD increased relative to species richness with increasing mean annual temperature, whereas FD decreased with decreasing seasonality relative to PD. We also show that the tropical areas are characterized by a FD deficit, a phenomenon, that suggests that in tropical areas more species can be packed into the ecological space. We discuss potential mechanisms that could have resulted in the gradient of spatial mismatch observed in the different biodiversity measures and draw parallels to local scale studies. We conclude that the use of multiple diversity measures on a global scale can help to elucidate the relative importance of historical and ecological processes shaping the present gradients in mammalian diversity.

Ecological and evolutionary mechanisms that drive community assembly vary in space and time. However, little is known about how such mechanisms act in contrasting habitats. Here, we estimated the functional and phylogenetic structure of forest and savanna bird assemblages across different spatial scales to understand: 1) the mechanisms that govern the structure of assemblages in these habitats; 2) the relationship between phylogenetic and functional structure; and 3) the influence of species richness on the functional and phylogenetic structure of assemblages. We used a null model where forest and savanna bird species were allowed to occur in the same null assemblages and other where species were separated based on their habitats. According to the first null model, forest bird assemblages were functionally and phylogenetically clustered at all spatial scales, whereas savanna bird assemblages generally showed random functional and phylogenetic structure. These results can be explained by the low dispersal rate of forest species across of the patchy habitats and the widespread distribution of savanna species. However, in the second null model, both forest and savanna bird assemblages showed random functional and phylogenetic structure at regional and local scales. This suggests that trait-based assembly might not play an important role in both habitats and across different spatial scales. In addition, the phylogenetic and functional structure of assemblages were not correlated, evidencing that caution is necessary when using phylogenetic relationships as a surrogate to functional distances among species. Finally, the relationships between species richness and functional and phylogenetic structure indicated that an increase in the number of species can promote both clustering and overdispersion, depending on the studied habitat and scale. Our study shows that integrating different types of habitat, spatial scales and biodiversity components in a single framework can shed light on the mechanisms that determine the community assembly.

Aim: Bats are commonly considered in the literature as an example of strong niche conservatism. However, no specific tests have been conducted to investigate the extent to which bat species niches are evolutionarily conserved. We address this question at different phylogenetic scales using phylogenetic and geographical approaches. Location: Global. Methods: We used nine climatic variables to describe a multivariate representation of bat climatic niches. We measured niche position, niche breadth and niche overlap between sister species pairs. We performed a Mantel test to verify whether niche overlap was related to phylogenetic distance among species. We also tested for phylogenetic signal and compared the relative fit of evolutionary models with the observed variation of niche features. Results: Niche overlap and phylogenetic distances were not related. At deeper evolutionary scales, we found evidence that climatic niche evolved more slowly than expected under a Brownian motion model. This indicates phylogenetic conservatism, particularly for niche position of Vespertilionidae and Molossidae. Main conclusions: We found evidence of phylogenetic niche conservatism at the order and family levels but not at the species level. Evolution of climatic niches is non-stationary across the order Chiroptera, consistent with the different histories of clades. We stress the importance of taking into account the method of choice, the niche feature and the phylogenetic scale being evaluated when testing for phylogenetic niche conservatism at higher taxonomic levels and its influence on biodiversity gradients.

Aim: To analyse the geographical co-occurrence among mammal species based on their complete geographical distributions, considering their phylogenetic relationships and body size data. We describe species-level patterns and test the relative effects of ecological and evolutionary processes in determining species co-occurrence under the phylogenetic field framework. Location: Global. Methods: We gathered distributional, phylogenetic and body size information for 3697 mammal species. We defined phylogenetic fields of species by estimating the phylogenetic structure of species co-occurrence within a focal species' range. Likewise, body size structure within focal species' ranges was defined as body size fields. We applied a spatial-phylogenetic statistical framework to evaluate geographical variation on species fields. Also, we tested the significance of phylogenetic and body size fields based on biogeographically informed null models. Analyses were done for all mammal species as a whole and within particular taxonomic orders. Results: Phylogenetic and body size fields of mammal species showed significant geographical patterning beyond their spatial and phylogenetic dependence. Phylogenetic fields were strikingly different between the New and Old World, with mammals co-occurring with more closely related species in the New World and more distantly related species in the Old World. Clustered phylogenetic and body size fields showed geographically congruent patterns. Similar findings were obtained within particular mammalian orders. Main conclusions: Geographical co-occurrence among mammal species reveals the imprint of historical origins and dispersal of mammalian lineages. Phylogenetic and body size structure within mammalian ranges is driven by the distinct histories among biogeographical regions and mainly between the New and Old World. We demonstrate the usefulness of a new protocol integrating species' distributional, phylogenetic and body size information for linking evolutionary and ecological approaches to understand geographical patterns of biodiversity.

AIM: The processes leading to the assembly of ecological communities can determine their functional structure. We assess the influence of biogeographical correlates associated with species diversity gradients on the global patterns of functional diversity of island parasitoid assemblages (Hymenoptera, Braconidae). We also evaluate whether island assemblages present a non‐random functional structure. LOCATION: Fifty‐three archipelagos distributed world‐wide. METHODS: Six traits related to morphology, attack strategy and development were used to measure functional diversity and determine the level of departure from randomness on trait diversity between islands and their corresponding species pool, through null models. We used generalized and partial regressions to determine the influence of different predictors (climate, regional and local island characteristics) on the functional diversity of island assemblages, comparing results with those obtained for species richness. We also evaluated whether any of the predictors or particular species traits were related to the patterns obtained when comparing island assemblages with null models. RESULTS: Most of the geographical variation in functional diversity was not explained by the predictors evaluated, while for species richness these explained over 70% of spatial variation. The abiotic characteristics of islands with functionally clustered parasitoid biotas (c. 40% of all islands) did not differ from those of other islands. Comparisons between functionally clustered assemblages and those expected randomly from the species pool indicated a higher percentage of that the former included proportionally fewer ectoparasitoid and idiobiont species, which attack fewer host orders and prefer the egg and larval stages of their hosts. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: The predictors correlated with functional diversity differ from those driving species richness patterns. We argue that biotic filters associated with the structure of the host communities may be important determinants of the assembly of many island parasitoid faunas, leading to assemblages dominated by species presenting particular ranges of trait values that differ from those in their pool of potential colonists.

Few studies have considered the effects of environmental variables at different spatial scales on Neotropical stream biodiversity. Furthermore, scale-related studies mostly include only one facet of biodiversity. To determine the contribution of local and landscape variables to the variation in the taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic α-diversity of stream fish assemblages, we sampled 85 streams in the Upper Paraná River basin, Brazil. Local variables explained a substantial fraction of the variance in almost all biodiversity facets. Landscape variables (i.e., land-use and spatial variables) contributed little to the variation in the α-component of biodiversity. Our results thus highlight the importance of local features for maintaining stream fish biodiversity in agroecosystems. Probably, land-use were not significant because the study area was in a relatively homogeneous landscape severely impacted by anthropogenic activities. It is possible that insignificant effects of spatial structuring occurred because the ichthyofauna has already gone through a homogenization process and/or due to the spatial scale of our study. We suggest that even though local-scale restoration actions would influence biodiversity, we should not neglect landscape restoration because substantial improvements in the ecological integrity of streams are more likely to be accomplished with large-scale actions (e.g., re-establishment of the native riparian forest).

Forest fragmentation and defaunation are considered the main drivers of biodiversity loss, yet the synergistic effects of landscape changes and biotic interactions on assemblage structure have been poorly investigated. Here, we use an extensive dataset of 283 assemblages and 105 species of small mammals to understand how defaunation of medium and large mammals and forest fragmentation change the community composition and diversity of rodents and marsupials in tropical forests of South America. We used structured equation models to investigate the relationship between small mammal species, functional and phylogenetic diversity with forest size, forest cover and the occurrence of medium and large mammals. The best‐fit model showed that defaunation reduced functional diversity, and that species diversity of small mammals increased with forest patch size. Forest cover did not affect functional and phylogenetic diversity. Our results indicate that occurrence of medium and large sized mammals (probably acting as predators, or competitors of small mammals) and forest patch size help to retain species and functional diversity in small mammal communities. Further, the number of species in a small mammal community was critical to the maintenance of phylogenetic diversity, and may have a pronounced influence on the ecological functions played by small mammals. Identifying how phylogenetic and functional diversity change in function of human pressures allows us to better understand the contribution of extant lineages to ecosystem functioning in tropical forests.

The invasion of exotic species is a global problem that impacts natural ecosystems. Here, we assessed the impact of the annual grass Andropogon fastigiatus and the shrub Lepidaploa aurea, two native species commonly used in restoration projects in the Brazilian savannas, on the control of the invasive grass Urochloa decumbens. We did a plant competition experiment using 40 plots, where a single U. decumbens individual was surrounded by eight individuals of A. fastigiatus, L. aurea, or a combination of both species, along with a control treatment with only U. decumbens. After 4 months, we collected the aboveground biomass and seed biomass of focal U. decumbens individuals. Native species did not reduce the biomass or seed production of the U. decumbens. However, A. fastigiatus exhibited competitive ability similar to U. decumbens, being the only treatment where there was no increase in the invasive grass biomass. In the presence of L. aurea and when A. fastigiatus density was reduced by half, the biomass of U. decumbens was about three folds that observed in the control plots. This is likely due to a more effective use of available resources in the soil. Despite these two species being widely used in ecological restoration efforts in the Cerrado, we found that only A. fastigiatus was able to control U. decumbens biomass, but neither species could reduce the invasive grass reproductive output. Nevertheless, at high density, A. fastigiatus can be a strong competitor against U. decumbens and should be included in seed mixtures for Cerrado restoration.

Aim Species' ecological traits and evolutionary relatedness have gained attention in the scientific community for their important roles in the functioning and stability of ecosystems. However, conservation science is in urgent need of methods that integrate both ecological and evolutionary components of biodiversity into conservation strategies for threatened species. Here, we propose an approach to identify and locate 'ecologically and evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered' species (EcoEDGE) at broad and fine geographical scales. Location Global. Methods We used phylogeny and life-history traits to calculate evolutionary and ecological distinctiveness values of terrestrial mammals. We combined these values into one measure, EcoEDGE, which also considers species' threat status. Then, we correlated values of ecological and evolutionary distinctiveness (ED) and mapped the geographical distribution of species to locate regions with high number of mammals with great EcoEDGE scores. We also identified and located areas with high number of mammals that are highly distinct across most local assemblages in which they occur. Results Ecological and ED tended to be complementary to each other rather than redundant. Evolutionarily distinct threatened species were mostly concentrated in the tropics, while ecologically distinct threatened species were distributed across tropical and temperate regions. In addition, both ecologically and evolutionarily distinct threatened species overlapped their distributions with biodiversity hotspots, including the Atlantic forest, the Cerrado, Indo-Burma and Sundaland. Mammals with great EcoEDGE scores were concentrated in the tropics, but because they retained patterns from ecologically distinct species, their distribution stretched into temperate regions. Moreover, Africa, Australia and Indo-Malayan regions held a great number of mammals with unique ecological and evolutionary roles in the local assemblages where they occur. Main conclusions Ecologically and evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered builds upon existing strategies that include ecological traits into a species-focused prioritization approach and, thus, further informs conservation of ecosystem processes and services at multiple geographical scales.

Aim: We investigated the phylogenetic structure of woody Caesalpinioideae species to address whether in situ diversification or habitat shifts from other biomes explain the species diversity in the Cerrado. Location: Amazon and Atlantic rain forests, Cerrado and Caatinga in Brazil. Methods: We obtained occurrence data and generated a phylogenetic hypothesis for all woody Caesalpinioideae species occurring in Brazil. We calculated the net relatedness index (NRI) to measure the phylogenetic structure and performed a nodesig analysis to identify which clades contributed to phylogenetic clustering or overdispersion. We also calculated phylogenetic and taxonomic indices of beta diversity to investigate species turnover between Cerrado habitats and neighbouring biomes. Results: Species occurring in savannas and forested savannas were more related than expected by chance, i.e. phylogenetic clustering. Clades that were overabundant in savannas and forested savannas, such as Bauhinia, were poorly represented in neighbouring biomes, providing evidence of in situ diversification in some lineages. Savannas shared clades and showed lower phylogenetic than taxonomic dissimilarity from Caatinga, consistent with habitat shifts, mainly in the Cassia and Caesalpinia clades. Main conclusions: Dry, open habitats (savannas, forested savannas and Caatinga) have lineages that diversified more recently than those in forest habitats. Caesalpinioideae lineages from savannas and Caatinga are closely related, and this dissimilarity was due to both turnover (55.5%) and nestedness (44.5%). Hence, species inhabiting Caatinga and savannas are often resolved as pairs of sister species, indicating habitat shifts (especially in the Cassia and Caesalpinia clades). The higher phylogenetic diversity of species in the Caatinga than in savanna and forested savanna may indicate that lineage shifts may have occurred, mainly from the Caatinga into the savanna habitats. Phylogenetic and taxonomic dissimilarity of savannas with Amazon and Atlantic rain forests was mainly due to the turnover of lineages, with evidence of in situ diversification in some clades, especially Bauhinia.