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We developed a long-term tagging method that can be used to understand species assemblages and social groupings associated with large marine fishes such as the Sand Tiger shark Carcharias taurus. We deployed internally implanted archival VEMCO Mobile Transceivers (VMTs; VEMCO Ltd. Nova Scotia, Canada) in 20 adult Sand Tigers, of which two tags were successfully recovered (10%). The recovered VMTs recorded 29,646 and 44,210 detections of telemetered animals respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate a method for long-term (~ 1 year) archival acoustic transceiver tag implantation, retention, and recovery in a highly migratory marine fish. Results show low presumed mortality (n = 1, 5%), high VMT retention, and that non-lethal recovery after almost a year at liberty can be achieved for archival acoustic transceivers. This method can be applied to study the social interactions and behavioral ecology of large marine fishes.

Ecotourism opportunities in the marine environment often rely heavily on provisioning to ensure the viewing of cryptic species by the public. However, intentional feeding of wildlife can impact numerous aspects of an animals’ behavior and ecology. Southern stingrays ( Hypanus americana ) provisioned at Stingray City Sandbar (SCS) in Grand Cayman have altered diel activity patterns and decreased measures of health. This study looked at seasonal changes in stable isotope (SI) and fatty acid (FA) profiles of provisioned stingrays at SCS. Plasma δ 15 N was higher in male stingrays (11.86 ± 1.71‰) compared to females (10.70 ± 1.71‰). Lower values for δ 15 N in males and females were measured in October during low tourist season, suggesting stingrays may be forced to rely on native prey items to supplement the decreased amount of provisioned squid available during this time. Plasma FA profiles were significantly different between sexes and across sampling time points, with FAs 22:6n3, 16:0, 20:5n3, 18:1n3C, 18:0 and 18:1n9T contributing to dissimilarity scores between groups. Dietary FAs primarily contributed to differences between males and females lending further evidence to differences in foraging patterns at SCS, likely due to intraspecific competition. Further, canonical analysis of principal coordinates (CAP) analysis of FA profiles suggest similar diets during peak tourist season and differences in diet between males and females during the low season. This study demonstrates alterations in feeding ecology in stingrays at SCS which is of critical importance for effective management of the SCS aggregation.

Fundamental characteristics of the reproductive biology of female sand tiger sharks Carcharias taurus are needed to understand the periodicity, seasonality and environmental factors essential for reproduction in this iconic species. Animals in managed care, such as aquariums, provide the unique opportunity for longitudinal study in contrast to in situ sharks that are examined opportunistically, and at a single point in time. Additionally, comparison of reproductive observations from successfully reproducing in situ sharks and aquarium sharks may help elucidate reasons for lack of reproduction among aquarium sharks and aid the development of assisted reproductive techniques for managed populations. Reproductive status of in situ and aquarium female sharks was assessed using ultrasonography and plasma hormone (17 β -estradiol, testosterone, and progesterone) monitoring. The reproductive cycle was divided into eight stages based on ovarian activity and uterine contents. In situ sharks were sampled from Delaware Bay ( n = 29), North Carolina ( n = 39) and South Carolina ( n = 11) during April-November from 2015–2020. Nineteen aquarium females from five aquaria were examined longitudinally for two or more consecutive years. Reproductive regionalization was observed among in situ females with the majority (83%) of North Carolina females in an active state of reproduction and all Delaware females in a resting reproductive state. All aquarium females had a pattern of reproductive cycling that was consistent with alternating years of activity and rest with confirmed biennial ( n = 7) or triennial ( n = 3) reproductive cycles with spring seasonality. In contrast to in situ females, aquarium females often retained uterine eggs for 9-20 months after ovulation in the absence of a developing embryo(s). Pre-ovulatory aquarium females had significantly higher concentrations of 17 β -estradiol, testosterone and progesterone than other reproductive stages. For females in the ovulatory stage, in situ females had higher testosterone than aquarium females. Endocrine differences between successfully reproducing in situ females and aquarium females likely contribute to the limited reproductive success observed for this species in managed care and may be a reflection of diminished seasonal cues and environmental differences.

Preventative health care of elasmobranchs is an important but understudied field of aquatic veterinary medicine. Evaluation of inflammation through the acute phase response is a valuable tool in health assessments. To better assess the health of bonnethead sharks (Sphyrna tiburo) under managed care, normal reference intervals of protein electrophoresis (EPH) and the acute phase proteins, C-reactive protein (CRP) and haptoglobin (HP), were established. Blood was collected from wild caught, captive raised bonnethead sharks housed at public aquaria. Lithium heparinized plasma was either submitted fresh or stored at −80°C prior to submission. Electrophoresis identified protein fractions with migration characteristics similar to other animals with albumin, α-1 globulin, α-2 globulin, β globulin, and γ globulin. These fractions were classified as fractions 1–5 as fractional contents are unknown in this species. Commercial reagents for CRP and HP were validated for use in bonnethead sharks. Reference intervals were established using the robust method recommended by the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology for the calculation of 90% reference intervals. Once established, the diagnostic and clinical applicability of these reference intervals was used to assess blood from individuals with known infectious diseases that resulted in systemic inflammation and eventual death. Unhealthy bonnethead sharks had significantly decreased fraction 2, fraction 3, and fraction 3:4 ratio and significantly increased fraction 5, CRP, and HP. These findings advance our understanding of elasmobranch acute phase inflammatory response and health and aid clinicians in the diagnosis of inflammatory disease in bonnethead sharks.

Blood transfusions can provide life-saving treatment to severely anemic animals. Due to limited availability and the difficulty of storing whole blood and blood products, such as fresh frozen plasma and packed red blood cells, exotic animals often receive fresh whole blood transfusions. Little is known about elasmobranch blood types and transfusions. Conspecific cross-matches within several different elasmobranch species were negative, indicating that in an emergency situation a single whole blood transfusion may be possible without causing a transfusion reaction. Experimental transfusions between healthy conspecific Atlantic rays (Dasyatis sabina) showed no adverse reactions and autotransfusions in marbled electric rays (Torpedo marmorata) were successful. There are no published reports of blood transfusions performed on clinically abnormal elasmobranchs. The following case series documents blood transfusions performed on seven cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) and one short-tail stingray (Dasyatis brevicaudata). All rays were treated with the same protocol, which included pretreatment with steroids and antibiotics followed by an intravenous transfusion of freshly collected, heparinized, whole blood. Three animals survived and currently exhibit no abnormal clinical signs. Two animals died 55 days and 100 days post transfusion. Three animals died 2–22 days post transfusion. Although complications from blood transfusions could not be ruled out, all five animals that died had other health problems that likely contributed to their demise. All eight animals would almost certainly have died without a blood transfusion as they were severely anemic and moribund at the time of presentation. The methods described in this paper may be useful in the treatment of severely anemic elasmobranchs and this is the first report of blood transfusions in clinically abnormal elasmobranchs.

An adult, female, reef manta ray (Manta alfredi) was evaluated for abnormal swimming and coelomic distention after colliding with a floating dock in an exhibit. Initial clinical signs included abnormal posture and swimming. Clinical signs progressed to include muscle wasting, poor body condition, and coelomic distention. Further diagnostics revealed excessive exhibit substrate within the gastrointestinal tract, gastric ulcers, free coelomic fluid, possible spinal lesion, possible uterine abnormality, and hematologic changes. The ray was treated with repeated gastroscopic examinations to remove substrate from the stomach. Psyllium and mineral oil were administered in gel food to assist with passage of substrate through the gastrointestinal tract. Gastric ulcers were treated with sucralfate. Vitamin B complex, iron dextran, and Yunnan Paiyao were used to treat the anemia. Amikacin and sulfadimethoxine-ormetoprim were administered for suspected bacterial and coccidial infections, respectively. Over the course of 11 mo the ray returned to normal health.

In this report, two cases of systemic mycosis in captive sharks are characterized. These cases were progressive and ultimately culminated in terminal disease. Paecilomyces lilacinus, an uncommon pathogen in human and veterinary medicine, was associated with areas of necrosis in the liver, heart, and gill in a great hammerhead shark (Sphyrna mokarran). Fungal growth was observed from samples of kidney, spleen, spinal fluid, and coelomic cavity swabs. Dual fungal infection by Exophiala pisciphila and Mucor circinelloides was diagnosed in a juvenile zebra shark (Stegostoma fasciatum). Both fungi were present in the liver, with more severe tissue destruction associated with E. pisciphila. E. pisciphila also produced significant necrosis in the spleen and gill, while M. circinelloides was associated with only minimal tissue changes in the heart. Fungal cultures from liver, kidney, and spleen were positive for both E. pisciphila and M. circinelloides. Identification of P. lilacinus and M. circinelloides was based on colonial and hyphal morphology. E. pisciphila was identified by sequence analysis of the 28S rRNA D1/D2 region and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region between the 18S and 28S rRNA subunit. These cases, and a lack of information in the literature, highlight the need for further research and diagnostic sampling to further characterize the host–pathogen interaction between elasmobranchs and fungi.

Aspergillosis is a common respiratory fungal disease in penguins managed under human care. Triazole antifungal drugs, including itraconazole, are most commonly used for treatment; however, itraconazole treatment failures from drug resistance are becoming more common, requiring newer treatment options. Voriconazole, a newer triazole, is being used more often. Until recently, no voriconazole pharmacokinetic studies had been performed in penguins, leading to empiric dosing based on other avian studies. This has led to increased anecdotal reporting of apparent voriconazole toxicity in penguins. This report describes 18 probable and 6 suspected cases of voriconazole toxicity in six penguin species from nine institutions: 12 African penguins (Spheniscus demersus), 5 Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), 3 Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus), 2 gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua papua), 1 macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus), and 1 emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri). Observed clinical signs of toxicity included anorexia, lethargy, weakness, ataxia, paresis, apparent vision changes, seizure-like activity, and generalized seizures. Similar signs of toxicity have also been reported in humans, in whom voriconazole therapeutic plasma concentration for Aspergillus spp. infections is 2–6 μg/ml. Plasma voriconazole concentrations were measured in 18 samples from penguins showing clinical signs suggestive of voriconazole toxicity. The concentrations ranged from 8.12 to 64.17 μg/ml, with penguins having plasma concentrations above 30 μg/ml exhibiting moderate to severe neurologic signs, including ataxia, paresis, and seizures. These concentrations were well above those known to result in central nervous system toxicity, including encephalopathy, in humans. This case series highlights the importance of species-specific dosing of voriconazole in penguins and plasma therapeutic drug monitoring. Further investigation, including pharmacokinetic studies, is warranted. The authors recommend caution in determining voriconazole dosages for use in penguin species.

Herpesviruses and herpes-like viruses have been reported in only a small number of species of cetaceans, and, to date, clinical manifestations have been either as a life-threatening, disseminated infection or as a non-life-threatening dermatitis. A stranded juvenile Atlantic bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, was admitted to the Dolphin and Whale Hospital for rehabilitation. On initial physical examination, the rostral skin had multifocal regions of hyperplasia, and the skin of the dorsum contained a large number of small papules. Histologically, epithelial hyperplasia was evident, and clusters of epithelial cells contained 5–15-μm intranuclear inclusion bodies. Transmission electron microscopic investigation revealed numerous 170–190-nm enveloped virions in both the intracellular spaces and the cytoplasm of epithelial cells, with numerous nucleocapsids noted in epithelial cell nuclei. Consensus primer polymerase chain reaction identified the presence of a novel herpesvirus associated with the lesions. Phylogenetic analysis of the deduced amino acid sequences of the herpesvirus DNA polymerase gene fragment showed it to align with alphaherpesvirus sequences from humans and domestic animals. Although clearly distinct, it was most closely related to two previously described alphaherpesviruses of dolphins. This case represents the first documentation of herpesvirus dermatitis in the Atlantic bottlenose dolphin.

Although lungworms are known to infect many mammalian species and a few are known to infect snakes, lizards, and birds, previously none were known to infect chelonians. This study documents the first three known cases of lungworms in loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta. It is unlikely that the lungworms were the primary cause of illness in any of the cases, and they may be only contributory or even incidental. Changes observed in the two cases that died included tracheal and bronchial epithelial hyperplasia and goblet cell hyperplasia. Lesions caused directly by the parasites seem to be restricted to the upper respiratory tree (trachea and main bronchi), but changes in the lungs themselves may be caused by the debris produced by the worms. Although neither case was successfully treated for the lungworms prior to death, it would appear that oxfendazole may be an effective treatment and has been used in the third case that is still undergoing rehabilitation.