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Red and processed meat (RPM) intake varies widely globally. In some high-income countries (HIC) the last decade has witnessed an overall decline or stabilisation in the consumption of RPM, in contrast to emerging economies where its consumption continues to increase with rising income and rapid urbanisation. The production and consumption of RPM have become major concerns regarding the environmental impacts of livestock in particular, but also because of associations between high RPM consumption and diet-related non-communicable disease. Therefore, it is important to identify socioeconomic and demographic drivers of the consumption of RPM. This paper explores how consumption of RPM differs with age, gender, socioeconomic status and in different global contexts. There are some key socioeconomic and demographic patterns in RPM consumption. Men tend to consume RPM more often and in higher quantities, and there is evidence of a social gradient in HIC, with lower socioeconomic groups consuming RPM more often and in larger quantities. Patterns for consumption with age are less clear cut. It is apparent that consumers in HIC are still consuming high levels of RPM, although the downward shifts in some socioeconomic and demographic groups is encouraging and suggests that strategies could be developed to engage those consumers identified as high RPM consumers. In low- and middle-income countries, RPM consumption is rising, especially in China and Brazil, and in urban areas. Ways of encouraging populations to maintain their traditional healthy eating patterns need to be found in low- and middle-income countries, which will have health, environmental and economic co-benefits.

Background Although it is increasingly acknowledged that social networks are important to our understanding ofoverweight and obesity, there is limited understanding about the processes by which such networks shapetheir progression. This paper reports the findings of a scoping review of the literature that sought to identify the key processes through which social networks are understood to influence the development of overweight and obesity. Methods A scoping review was conducted. Forty five papers were included in the final review, the findings of which were synthesised to provide an overview of the main processes through which networks have been understood to influence the development of overweight and obesity. Results Included papers addressed a wide range of research questions framed around six types of networks: a paired network (one’s spouse or intimate partner); friends and family (including work colleagues and people within social clubs); ephemeral networks in shared public spaces (such as fellow shoppers in a supermarket or diners in a restaurant); people living within the same geographical region; peers (including co-workers, fellow students, fellow participants in a weight loss programme); and cultural groups (often related toethnicity). As individuals are embedded in many of these different types of social networks at any one time, the pathways of influence from social networks to the development of patterns of overweight and obesity are likely to be complex and interrelated. Included papers addressed a diverse set of issues: body weight trends over time; body size norms or preferences; weight loss and management; physical activity patterns; and dietary patterns. Discussion Three inter-related processes were identified: social contagion (whereby the network in which people are embedded influences their weight or weight influencing behaviours), social capital (whereby sense of belonging and social support influence weight or weight influencing behaviours), and social selection (whereby a person’s network might develop according to his or her weight). Conclusions The findings have important implications for understanding about methods to target the spread of obesity, indicating that much greater attention needs to be paid to the social context in which people make decisions about their weight and weight influencing behaviours.

Higher intakes of red and processed meat are associated with poorer health outcomes and negative environmental impacts. Drawing upon a population survey the present paper investigates meat consumption behaviours, exploring perceived impacts for human health, animal welfare and the environment. Structured self-completion postal survey relating to red and processed meat, capturing data on attitudes, sustainable meat purchasing behaviour, red and processed meat intake, plus sociodemographic characteristics of respondents. Urban and rural districts of Nottinghamshire, East Midlands, UK, drawn from the electoral register. UK adults (n 842) aged 18-91 years, 497 females and 345 males, representing a 35·6 % response rate from 2500 randomly selected residents. Women were significantly more likely (P60 years) were more likely to hold positive attitudes towards animal welfare (P<0·01). Less than a fifth (18·4 %) of the sample agreed that the impact of climate change could be reduced by consuming less meat, dairy products and eggs. Positive attitudes towards animal welfare were associated with consuming less meat and a greater frequency of 'higher welfare' meat purchases. Human health and animal welfare are more common motivations to avoid red and processed meat than environmental sustainability. Policy makers, nutritionists and health professionals need to increase the public's awareness of the environmental impact of eating red and processed meat. A first step could be to ensure that dietary guidelines integrate the nutritional, animal welfare and environmental components of sustainable diets.

Despite widespread concern over exploitation of the European Union's fish stocks, dietary guidelines in the UK continue to recommend two portions of fish per week. The present study sought to investigate whether health and/or sustainability are motivating factors when purchasing and consuming fish and whether there are sociodemographic trends. A structured, self-completion postal questionnaire exploring consumers' attitudes towards purchasing fish, their dietary intake, stated purchasing behaviour and sociodemographic information. Nottinghamshire, UK. Adults from 842 households randomly selected from the electoral register. Over half of the participants (57·0 %) were aware of the health benefits of fish consumption and reported health as a primary motivator for purchasing fish; however, only 26·8 % actively sought to purchase fish from a sustainable source (e.g. Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified fish). Only 30·6 % of participants met current dietary recommendations for fish intake. Older respondents (>60 years of age) were more likely to report purchasing fish for health reasons and to buy MSC fish. Participants were significantly less likely to report MSC purchases if they agreed with the statement 'I am confused about which type of fish I should be eating to protect fish stocks' (P < 0·001). The number of consumers purchasing fish for health reasons was more than those seeking sustainably sourced fish; yet, they still failed to meet the recommended intake set by the Food Standards Agency. Dietary advice to the public to increase consumption of fish conflicts with the prevailing pressure on fish stocks. Clear advice should be communicated enabling consumers to meet nutritional needs while protecting fish stocks.

Sustainability has become fundamental to many global policy agendas in areas relating to human impact on the earth's resources, such as food production and consumption. In the UK, the former labour government devised 'Food 2030', a strategy document stipulating sustainable production and consumption as priority issues for food policy; however this has not been incorporated into guidance for consumers. Additionally, current dietary guidelines concerning meat and fish are in direct conflict with environmental interests. Amidst this ambiguity, Sustain: 'the alliance for better food and farming' provides advice to citizens seeking to consume food more sustainably. This study seeks to assess consumer attitudes towards some of the issues associated with sustainable food, particularly in the context of current dietary intake and purchasing behaviour. Method(s) Adopting a qualitative approach with 11 adults, based on a consumer focussed framework for understanding sustainable food, a structured self-completion postal questionnaire was developed. This explored regular shopping habits, attitudes towards sustainable food across a variety of sustainability related issues, for example animal welfare, local food, organic food, fish, packaging, seasonal food, Fair trade, bottled water and food transport. Dietary intake was assessed, and respondents reported 'sustainable food' purchasing behaviour. Finally some information was noted on participants' socio-demographic characteristics. A final sample size of 842 was achieved. Results Findings suggest that consumers are largely positive in their attitudes towards 'sustainable food'; however some issues such as local food assume a higher priority for respondents than others, for example organic food. Some notable socio-demographic characteristics are observed, such as the trend for older consumers (>60 years of age) to hold more positive attitudes towards sustainable food. There is also an association between respondents reporting healthier dietary intakes and holding more positive attitudes towards sustainable food. Further relationships are observed between attitudes towards meat, consumption and purchasing data. Respondents largely agreed (88.5%) that animal welfare was important when buying meat, however when consuming meat, women were significantly more likely (P<0.0l) than men to report consuming less but also to be concerned over the source of meat (P<0.00l) and animal welfare (P<0.05). In the key area of fish consumption, over half of participants (57%) were aware of the health benefits of fish consumption and reported health as a primary motivator for purchasing fish; however, only 26% actively sought to purchase fish from a sustainable source (i.e. Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified fish). Only 30% of participants met current dietary recommendations for fish intake. Older respondents (>60 years of age) were more likely to report purchasing fish for health reasons and to buy MSC fish. Participants were significantly less likely to report MSC purchases if they were confused about which type of fish I should be eating to protect fish stocks (P < 0•001). Purchasing data reveals participants stated priorities when buying food, and in particular the reported preference for 'local' food over other 'sustainable' options. Conclusions This research contributes to the field by providing an enhanced understanding of how consumers view different components of 'sustainable food'. Additionally, relationships were observed which were previously unreported, for example, positive attitudes to 'sustainable food consumption' and a healthier dietary intake. Furthermore, results show links between attitude, consumption and reported purchases in key areas of 'sustainable food' consumption such as fish and meat, which provide an insight into tackling the issues from a consumer perspective. These findings are helpful in considering how to develop guidance to enable consumers to make more sustainable food choices, but also from a food policy perspective, in terms of considering which policy options may require further support, e.g. local food systems. Recommendations for Future Research Future research could replicate all or part of this study in another UK or European locality, or indeed further afield, to explore the role that geography and culture have on 'sustainable food' perceptions and behaviour. Further qualitative work could explore the link uncovered between healthier dietary intakes and holding more positive attitudes towards 'sustainable food', and additionally investigate some of the socio-demographic associations observed such as age, for example to explore the influence that different life stages have on 'sustainable food' perceptions and behaviour.

Although interest in 'sustainable food' has grown substantially in recent years, an official definition for sustainability has yet to be agreed upon. 'Sustain: the alliance for better food and farming' provide guidance to consumers wishing to make more sustainable food purchases, in the form of seven guiding principles. Using these principles, this study seeks to assess UK consumer's priorities towards sustainable food. A detailed structured questionnaire explored shopping habits, attitudes to sustainable food components (organic, fair-trade, local food and animal welfare), stated purchasing behaviour and demographic information. Questionnaires were sent to 2,500 randomly selected Nottinghamshire (UK) residents. A response rate of 35.6% was achieved. The data reveals that consumers prioritise packaging, how food is produced and animal welfare when considering sustainable food components. Stated purchasing behaviour demonstrates that 'free range' and 'local' products are more likely to take precedence over other sustainability aspects. Future research will seek to compare and contrast stated and actual preferences by comparing the population survey results to actual purchasing behaviour from supermarket data.