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Neurofeedback (NF) is a research and clinical technique, characterized by live demonstration of brain activation to the subject. The technique has become increasingly popular as a tool for the training of brain self-regulation, fueled by the superiority in spatial resolution and fidelity brought along with real-time analysis of fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) data, compared to the more traditional EEG (electroencephalography) approach. NF learning is a complex phenomenon and a controversial discussion on its feasibility and mechanisms has arisen in the literature. Critical aspects of the design of fMRI-NF studies include the localization of neural targets, cognitive and operant aspects of the training procedure, personalization of training, and the definition of training success, both through neural effects and (for studies with therapeutic aims) through clinical effects. In this paper, we argue that a developmental perspective should inform neural target selection particularly for pediatric populations, and different success metrics may allow in-depth analysis of NF learning. The relevance of the functional neuroanatomy of NF learning for brain target selection is discussed. Furthermore, we address controversial topics such as the role of strategy instructions, sometimes given to subjects in order to facilitate learning, and the timing of feedback. Discussion of these topics opens sight on problems that require further conceptual and empirical work, in order to improve the impact that fMRI-NF could have on basic and applied research in future. •Neurofeedback is a popular tool for the training of brain self-regulation.•This comprehensive overview aims to facilitate progress in neurofeedback research.•Brain circuit development should inform target selection in pediatric populations.•Standard success metrics enable between-study comparison of learning and efficacy.•Impact of instructions and interface on learning requires systematic study.

Current research implicates pre- and probiotic supplementation as a potential tool for improving symptomology in physical and mental ailments, which makes it an attractive concept for clinicians and consumers alike. Here we focus on the transitional period of late adolescence and early adulthood during which effective interventions, such as nutritional supplementation to influence the gut microbiota, have the potential to offset health-related costs in later life. We examined multiple indices of mood and well-being in 64 healthy females in a 4-week double blind, placebo controlled galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) prebiotic supplement intervention and obtained stool samples at baseline and follow-up for gut microbiota sequencing and analyses. We report effects of the GOS intervention on self-reported high trait anxiety, attentional bias, and bacterial abundance, suggesting that dietary supplementation with a GOS prebiotic may improve indices of pre-clinical anxiety. Gut microbiota research has captured the imagination of the scientific and lay community alike, yet we are now at a stage where this early enthusiasm will need to be met with rigorous research in humans. Our work makes an important contribution to this effort by combining a psychobiotic intervention in a human sample with comprehensive behavioural and gut microbiota measures.

Previous research has highlighted the role of glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in learning and plasticity. What is currently unknown is how this knowledge translates to real-life complex cognitive abilities that emerge slowly and how the link between these neurotransmitters and human learning and plasticity is shaped by development. While some have suggested a generic role of glutamate and GABA in learning and plasticity, others have hypothesized that their involvement shapes sensitive periods during development. Here we used a cross-sectional longitudinal design with 255 individuals (spanning primary school to university) to show that glutamate and GABA in the intraparietal sulcus explain unique variance both in current and future mathematical achievement (approximately 1.5 years). Furthermore, our findings reveal a dynamic and dissociable role of GABA and glutamate in predicting learning, which is reversed during development, and therefore provide novel implications for models of learning and plasticity during childhood and adulthood.

Background In this double-blind placebo-controlled randomised intervention we investigated the potential benefits of a prebiotic supplement on children’s well-being in a home setting. The primary aim was to determine if this supplement could effectively reduce anxiety, improve mood, and enhance cognitive function, similar to findings in young adults. Methods Fifty-three healthy children, aged 6 to 14, participated in an 8-week trial. The trial consisted of three testing time points; day zero marked the baseline measurement (T1) followed by a 28-day supplement intervention period during which they consumed 5.5 g of the prebiotic galactooligosaccharides (GOS) daily under parental guidance. Endline measures (T2) were conducted on the last day of supplement consumption, with a final follow-up testing session (T3) on day 56. Primary outcomes were trait anxiety using a questionnaire and emotional behavior in a dot-probe task on responses to positive and negative images. Secondary outcomes encompassed depression levels, cognitive function tests, and dietary intake recorded in a 4-day food diary. Additionally, we explored whether parents’ emotional behavior had an impact on children’s responses. Results While our statistical analysis did not reveal significant effects of GOS, there were noteworthy trends. Trait anxiety levels decreased over time in both groups, with a more pronounced decrease in the GOS group (after intervention, p  =.090; after follow-up, p  =.031). The GOS group exhibited reduced negative emotional responses compared to the placebo group ( p  =.105), and post-trial depression levels decreased in the GOS group over time ( p  =.015). Although parental emotional responses correlated with various emotional outcomes in children, they did not influence the intervention effects. Conclusions These findings suggest positive trends in line with our hypotheses, however further investigation with greater statistical power would be beneficial. Trial registration Retrospectively registered on https://clinicaltrials.gov/ [NCT06258135] on February 6, 2024.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common mental health disorder that can occur following exposure to a traumatic event, and is characterized by symptoms including intrusive memories, dissociation, and nightmares. PTSD poses significant suffering on the individual and can reduce quality of life substantially, however, its mechanisms are not fully understood. It has also been associated with gut abnormalities, such as with irritable bowel syndrome, indicating possible involvement of the gut microbiome and gut-brain axis. Whereas previous research has implicated the gut microbiome and microbiome gut-brain axis in various mental health disorders, the relationship between gut microbiome function and PTSD is unclear. Specifically, little is known about whether specific gut microbiome compositions can increase the risk of developing PTSD, or, vice versa, act as a protective factor for the individual. This systematic review aims to synthesize the literature looking at gut microbiome differences between individuals with PTSD and trauma-exposed controls (TEC) while exploring potential risk and resilience factors for development of the disorder. Three studies met the inclusion criteria, and results showed that all studies found differences in gut microbial taxa between PTSD and TEC groups yet varied in their taxonomic level and type. One study found a significant difference in diversity between groups, reporting lower diversity in PTSD, and two studies found certain taxa to be correlated with PTSD symptom severity: Mitsuokella , Odoribacter , Catenibacterium and Olsenella genera, and Actinobacteria , Lentisphaerae and Verrucomicrobia phyla. This review has important implications for potential novel treatments for PTSD which target the gut microbiome, for example psychobiotic dietary interventions such as prebiotics and probiotics. It also informs our understanding of potential risk and resilience factors for the disorder, such as certain gut microbiome compositions being potentially protective or increasing susceptibility. More research is needed, as currently sample sizes are small and confounding variables (e.g., diet) are not always controlled for. Systematic review registration: The protocol was registered on PROSPERO, registration number: CRD42024530033.

For most people, adolescence is synonymous with emotional turmoil and it has been shown that early difficulties with emotion regulation can lead to persistent problems for some people. This suggests that intervention during development might reduce long-term negative consequences for those individuals. Recent research has highlighted the suitability of real-time fMRI-based neurofeedback (NF) in training emotion regulation (ER) networks in adults. However, its usefulness in directly influencing plasticity in the maturing ER networks remains unclear. Here, we used NF to teach a group of 17 7–16 year-olds to up-regulate the bilateral insula, a key ER region. We found that all participants learned to increase activation during the up-regulation trials in comparison to the down-regulation trials. Importantly, a subsequent Granger causality analysis of Granger information flow within the wider ER network found that during up-regulation trials, bottom-up driven Granger information flow increased from the amygdala to the bilateral insula and from the left insula to the mid-cingulate cortex, supplementary motor area and the inferior parietal lobe. This was reversed during the down-regulation trials, where we observed an increase in top-down driven Granger information flow to the bilateral insula from mid-cingulate cortex, pre-central gyrus and inferior parietal lobule. This suggests that: 1) NF training had a differential effect on up-regulation vs down-regulation network connections, and that 2) our training was not only superficially concentrated on surface effects but also relevant with regards to the underlying neurocognitive bases. Together these findings highlight the feasibility of using NF in children and adolescents and its possible use for shaping key social cognitive networks during development. •Brain-based emotion regulation networks develop continuously throughout adolescence.•These networks can strengthen in response to fMRI neurofeedback (NF).•Here we used NF to increase insula response in a group of 7–17 year-olds.•Our NF training also had a strengthening effect on the emotion regulation network.•Future research could begin to explore the use of NF for facilitating clinical change.

Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)-based neurofeedback represents the latest applied behavioural neuroscience methodology developed to train participants in the self-regulation of brain regions or networks. However, as with previous biofeedback approaches which rely on electroencephalography (EEG) or related approaches such as brain-machine interface technology (BCI), individual success rates vary significantly, and some participants never learn to control their brain responses at all. Given that these approaches are often being developed for eventual use in a clinical setting (albeit there is also significant interest in using NF for neuro-enhancement in typical populations), this represents a significant hurdle which requires more research. Here we present the findings of a systematic review which focused on how psychological variables contribute to learning outcomes in fMRI-based neurofeedback. However, as this is a relatively new methodology, we also considered findings from EEG-based neurofeedback and BCI. 271 papers were found and screened through PsycINFO, psycARTICLES, Psychological and Behavioural Sciences Collection, ISI Web of Science and Medline and 21 were found to contribute towards the aim of this survey. Several main categories emerged: Attentional variables appear to be of importance to both performance and learning, motivational factors and mood have been implicated as moderate predictors of success, while personality factors have mixed findings. We conclude that future research will need to systematically manipulate psychological variables such as motivation or mood, and to define clear thresholds for a successful neurofeedback effect. Non-responders need to be targeted for interventions and tested with different neurofeedback setups to understand whether their non-response is specific or general. Also, there is a need for qualitative evidence to understand how psychological variables influence participants throughout their training. This will help us to understand the subtleties of psychological effects over time. This research will allow interventions to be developed for non-responders and better selection procedures in future to improve the efficacy of neurofeedback. •Non-response to neurofeedback is a prevalent issue, which needs to be addressed.•Attention, motivation, mood and other factors affect neurofeedback success.•Attention is consistently found to be crucial for efficient neurofeedback learning.•Mood and Motivation are moderate predictors of neurofeedback success.•The effect of psychological factors is complex, individual and design dependent.

Here we argue that a multidisciplinary research approach, such as currently practised in the field of developmental cognitive neuroscience, is key to maintaining current momentum and to future-proof the field of microbiome-gut-brain research. Moreover, such a comprehensive approach will also bring us closer to our aims of translation and targeted intervention approaches to improve mental health and well-being.

The human gut microbiome influence on brain function and mental health is an emerging area of intensive research. Animal and human research indicates adolescence as a sensitive period when the gut-brain axis is fine-tuned, where dietary interventions to change the microbiome may have long-lasting consequences for mental health. This study reports a systematic review and meta-analysis of microbiota-targeted (psychobiotics) interventions on anxiety in youth, with discussion of a consultation on the acceptability of psychobiotic interventions for mental health management amongst youth with lived experience. Six databases were searched for controlled trials in human samples (age range: 10–24 years) seeking to reduce anxiety. Post intervention outcomes were extracted as standard mean differences (SMDs) and pooled based on a random-effects model. 5416 studies were identified: 14 eligible for systematic review and 10 eligible for meta-analysis (total of 324 experimental and 293 control subjects). The meta-analysis found heterogeneity I2 was 12% and the pooled SMD was −0.03 (95% CI: −0.21, 0.14), indicating an absence of effect. One study presented with low bias risk, 5 with high, and 4 with uncertain risk. Accounting for risk, sensitivities analysis revealed a SMD of −0.16 (95% CI: −0.38, 0.07), indicative of minimal efficacy of psychobiotics for anxiety treatment in humans. There is currently limited evidence for use of psychobiotics to treat anxiety in youth. However, future progress will require a multidisciplinary research approach, which gives priority to specifying mechanisms in the human models, providing causal understanding, and addressing the wider context, and would be welcomed by anxious youths.

Khat is a plant that is used for its amphetamine-like stimulant properties. However, although khat is very popular in Eastern Africa, Arabian Peninsula, and the Middle East, there is still a lack of studies researching the possible neurobehavioral impairment derived from khat use. A systematic review was conducted to identify studies that assessed the effects of khat use on neurobehavioral functions. MedLine, Scopus, Cochrane, Web of Science and Open Grey literature were searched for relevant publications from inception to December 2020. Search terms included (a) khat and (b) several cognitive domains. References from relevant publications and grey literature were also reviewed to identify additional citations for inclusion. A total of 142 articles were reviewed, 14 of which met the inclusion criteria (nine human and five rodent studies). Available human studies suggest that long term khat use is associated with significant deficits in several cognitive domains, including learning, motor speed/coordination, set-shifting/response inhibition functions, cognitive flexibility, short term/working memory, and conflict resolution. In addition, rodent studies indicated daily administration of khat extract resulted in dose-related impairments in behavior such as motor hyperactivity and decreased cognition, mainly learning and memory. The findings presented in this review indicates that long-term khat use may be contributing to an impairment of neurobehavioral functions. However, gaps in literature were detected that future studies could potentially address to better understand the health consequences of khat use.