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Vessel speed reduction measures are a management tool used to reduce the risk of whale–ship strikes and mitigate their impacts. Large ships and other commercial vessels are required to publicly share tracking information, including their speed, via the Automatic Identification System (AIS), which is commonly used to evaluate compliance with these measures. However, smaller vessels are not required to carry AIS and therefore are not as easily monitored. Commercial off-the-shelf marine radar is a practical solution for independently tracking these vessels, although commercial target tracking is typically a black-box process, and the accuracy of reported speed is not available in manufacturer specifications. We conducted a large-scale measurement campaign to estimate radar-reported speed error by comparing concurrent radar- and AIS-reported values. Across 3097 unique vessel tracks from ten locations, there was strong correlation between radar and AIS speed, and radar values were within 1.8 knots of AIS values 95% of the time. Smaller vessels made up a large share of the analyzed tracks, and there was no significant difference in error compared to larger vessels. The results provide error bounds around radar-reported speeds that can be applied to vessels of all sizes, which can inform vessel-speed-monitoring efforts using radar.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are widely utilized for conservation of the world’s marine resources. Yet, compliance with MPA regulations remains difficult to measure because of limits to human resources and a lack of affordable technologies to automate monitoring over time. The Marine Monitor, an autonomous vessel monitoring, recording, and reporting system leveraging commercial off-the-shelf X-band marine radar to detect and track vessels, was used to monitor five nearshore California MPAs simultaneously and continuously to identify and compare site-specific use patterns over one year. Vessel tracks were classified into two movement patterns to capture likely fishing activity, “focal” or “linear”, that corresponded with local targeted species. Some illegal fishing potentially occurred at all sites (7–17% of tracks depending on site) most frequently on weekends and at mid-day, but the majority of activity occurred just outside the MPAs and in the near vicinity suggesting both a high level of compliance with regulations and awareness of MPA boundaries. Time spent engaged in potential fishing activity compared to track counts suggests that unique vessels may spend more time fishing inside area boundaries at some sites than others. The spatial distribution of activity shows distinct concentrations near MPA boundaries at all sites which strongly suggests vessels purposefully target the narrow area at the MPA boundary or “fish the line”, a potential acknowledgement of successful spillover. This activity increased significantly during some local fishing seasons. Concentration of activity at MPA boundaries highlights the importance of continuous monitoring at a high spatial and temporal resolution. Reporting of vessel behavior at a fine-scale using radar can help resource managers target enforcement efforts and understand human use patterns near coastal MPAs.

Monitoring vessel activity is an important part of managing marine protected areas (MPAs), but small-scale fishing and recreational vessels that do not participate in cooperative vessel traffic systems require additional monitoring strategies. Marine Monitor (M2) is a shore-based, multi-sensor platform that integrates commercially available hardware, primarily X-band marine radar and optical cameras, with custom software to autonomously track and report on vessel activity regardless of participation in other tracking systems. By utilizing established commercial hardware, the radar system is appropriate for supporting the management of coastal, small-scale MPAs. Data collected in the field are transferred to the cloud to provide a continuous record of activity and identify prohibited activities in real-time using behavior characteristics. To support the needs of MPA managers, both hardware and software improvements have been made over time, including ruggedizing equipment for the marine environment and powering systems in remote locations. Case studies are presented comparing data collection by both radar and the Automatic Identification System (AIS) in urban and remote locations. At the South La Jolla State Marine Reserve near San Diego, CA, USA, 93% of vessel activity (defined as the cumulative time vessels spent in the MPA) was identified exclusively by radar from November 2022 through January 2023. At the Caye Bokel Conservation Area, within the Turneffe Atoll Marine Reserve offshore of Belize, 98% was identified exclusively by radar from April through October 2022. Spatial and temporal patterns of radar-detected and AIS activity also differed at both sites. These case study site results together demonstrate the common and persistent presence of small-scale vessel activity near coastal MPAs that is not documented by cooperative systems. Therefore, an integrated radar system can be a useful tool for independent monitoring, supporting a comprehensive understanding of vessel activity in a variety of areas.

Comprehensive, global, and standardized data on ocean regulations are essential to assess protection levels. They are also key to successfully measuring progress towards 30 × 30 goals. ProtectedSeas’ Navigator is a repository of regulatory and spatial data for over 21,700 unique marine managed areas globally, with summaries of restricted fishing and marine activities extracted from official regulations. Navigator allows data users at the global, national, or local level to (1) explore overlapping regulations, (2) visualize where and what human activities are regulated, and (3) use a Level of Fishing Protection (LFP) score and other indicators in analysis with other data sets. Navigator’s LFP scoring system aligns well with other data sources and assessment methods, which seek to identify highly and fully protected areas. Navigator includes over 50 standard attributes per area and each area is cross-referenced to the applicable source documents and the World Database on Protected Areas, where appropriate.

Populated coastal areas worldwide have a legacy of numerous solid waste disposal sites. At the same time, mean sea level is rising and likely to accelerate, increasing flooding and/or erosion. There is therefore concern that landfill sites located at and near the coast pose a growing risk to the environment from the potential release of liquid and solid waste materials. This paper aims to assess our present understanding of this issue as well as research and practice needs by synthesizing the available evidence across a set of developed country cases, comprising England, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States (Florida). Common insights gained here include: (1) a lack of data and limited appreciation of waste release from coastal landfill as a potential problem; (2) recognition of the scale and diversity of coastal landfill waste within a range of generic settings (or situations); and (3) a lack of robust protocols that allow the impact of different categories of waste release to the coast to be assessed in a consistent and evidence-based manner, most particularly for solid waste. Hence, a need for greater understanding of the following issues is identified: (1) the amount, character and impact of waste that could be released from landfill sites; (2) the acceptability and regulation of waste eroding from coastal landfills; (3) present and future erosion rates at landfill sites suggesting the need for more monitoring and relevant predictive tools; (4) the full range of possible management methods for dealing with waste release from landfills and the science to support them; and (5) relevant long-term funding mechanisms to address this issue. The main focus and experience of current management practice has been protection/retention, or removal of landfills, with limited consideration of other feasible solutions and how they might be facilitated. Approaches to assess and address solid waste release to the marine/coastal environment represent a particular gap. Lastly, as solid waste will persist indefinitely and sea levels will rise for many centuries, the long timescale of this issue needs wider appreciation and should be included in coastal and waste policy.

Vessel traffic management systems can be employed for environmental management where vessel activity may be of concern. One such location is in San Francisco Bay where a variety of vessel types transit a highly-developed urban estuary. We analyzed vessel presence and speed across space and time using vessel data from the Marine Monitor, a vessel tracking system that integrates data from the Automatic Identification System and a marine-radar sensor linked to a high-definition camera. In doing so, we provide data that can inform collision risk to cetaceans who show an increased presence in the Bay and evaluation of the value in incorporating data from multiple sources when observing vessel traffic. We found that ferries traveled the greatest distance of any vessel type. Ferries and other commercial vessels (e.g., cargo and tanker ships and tug boats) traveled consistently in distinct paths while recreational traffic (e.g., motorized recreational craft and sailing vessels) was more dispersed. Large shipping vessels often traveled at speeds greater than 10 kn when transiting the study area, and ferries traveled at speeds greater than 30 kn. We found that distance traveled and speed varied by season for tugs, motorized recreational and sailing vessels. Distance traveled varied across day and night for cargo ships, tugs, and ferries while speed varied between day and night only for ferries. Between weekdays and weekends, distance traveled varied for cargo ships, ferries, and sailing vessels, while speed varied for ferries, motorized recreational craft, and sailing vessels. Radar-detected vessel traffic accounted for 33.9% of the total track distance observed, highlighting the need to include data from multiple vessel tracking systems to fully assess and manage vessel traffic in a densely populated urban estuary.

Most species of whales are vulnerable to vessel collisions, and the probability of lethality increases logistically with vessel speed. Spatially explicit risk assessments can inform the marine management process about the potential for vessel collisions. We used Satellite Automatic Identification Systems (SAIS) data from 2013 and 2014 to calculate vessel speed over ground around the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. Nearby shipping lanes connecting the Ports of Vancouver, Seattle, Tacoma, and Portland have the greatest density of vessel traffic arriving and departing, and these densely traveled routes continue outside the US Exclusive Economic Zone. We characterized speed and density based on vessel type and for areas of interest, including NOAA’s Cetacean Density and Distribution Working Group’s Biologically Important Areas. Cargo and tanker vessels constitute the majority of distance traveled at the greatest speeds. We found that calculated speed based on SAIS is higher and less variable than broadcast speed for most vessel types. It is important to use calculated speed over ground (SOG) in any analysis so that the risk from potential vessel collisions is not underestimated by using broadcast SOG. Temporal gaps in the SAIS data led to a resulting systematic underestimation of vessel speed in calculated speed over ground. In that case, SAIS can be helpful in documenting minimum vessel speeds across large geographic areas, especially beyond the reach of terrestrial AIS receivers. Satellite AIS is useful in examining vessel density at broad scales, and could be used to assess basin-wide open ocean routes. Future use of additional satellite platforms with AIS receivers will only increase the quality of SAIS data and decrease the amount of temporal gaps.

Bradbury AP, Cope SN, Wilkinson C and Mason TE, 2013. Regional patterns of changing beach morphology at a decadal scale The Southeast Regional Coastal Monitoring Programme commenced in 2002 and is on-going. In excess of 1000 km of open coast and estuarine shoreline are monitored at high resolution with a number of tools and at a range of spatial and temporal scales. The programme provides input to flood and coastal erosion risk management at a range of scales, from region-wide shoreline management plans, to detailed and localised geomorphological assessments. Detailed baseline surveys are repeated typically once every 5 years and three full surveys exist now for the entire coast. Sampling of the baseline surveys is conducted typically at biannual temporal interval. Annual analysis is conducted summarising coastal changes within coastal sub cells at a scale of typically 10–100 km. All data from the project are currently freely available via the project website (www.channelcoast.org). Examples are used to illustrate the challenges associated with analysis of coastal geomorphological change over decadal and annual temporal scales. Differentiation between natural coastal processes and management practices are explored.

The Southeast Regional Coastal Monitoring Programme commenced in 2002 and is on-going. In excess of 1000 km of open coast and estuarine shoreline are monitored at high resolution with a number of tools and at a range of spatial and temporal scales. The programme provides input to flood and coastal erosion risk management at a range of scales, from region-wide shoreline management plans, to detailed and localised geomorphological assessments. Detailed baseline surveys are repeated typically once every 5 years and three full surveys exist now for the entire coast. Sampling of the baseline surveys is conducted typically at biannual temporal interval. Annual analysis is conducted summarising coastal changes within coastal sub cells at a scale of typically 10-100 km. All data from the project are currently freely available via the project Website. Examples are used to illustrate the challenges associated with analysis of coastal geomorphological change over decadal and annual temporal scales. Differentiation between natural coastal processes and management practices are explored.