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With the exception of a few monogenic forms, Alzheimer disease (AD) has a complex aetiology that is likely to involve multiple susceptibility genes and environmental factors. The role of environmental factors is difficult to determine and, until a few years ago, the molecular mechanisms underlying gene–environment (G × E) interactions in AD were largely unknown. Here, we review evidence that has emerged over the past two decades to explain how environmental factors, such as diet, lifestyle, alcohol, smoking and pollutants, might interact with the human genome. In particular, we discuss how various environmental AD risk factors can induce epigenetic modifications of key AD-related genes and pathways and consider how epigenetic mechanisms could contribute to the effects of oxidative stress on AD onset. Studies on early-life exposures are helping to uncover critical time windows of sensitivity to epigenetic influences from environmental factors, thereby laying the foundations for future primary preventative approaches. We conclude that epigenetic modifications need to be considered when assessing G × E interactions in AD.Most cases of Alzheimer disease (AD) have a complex aetiology, probably involving multiple genetic and environmental factors. In this Review, the authors discuss how various environmental AD risk factors could induce epigenetic modifications of key AD-associated genes and pathways.

Epigenetic modifications of the nuclear genome, including DNA methylation, histone modifications and non-coding RNA post-transcriptional regulation, are increasingly being involved in the pathogenesis of several human diseases. Recent evidence suggests that also epigenetic modifications of the mitochondrial genome could contribute to the etiology of human diseases. In particular, altered methylation and hydroxymethylation levels of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have been found in animal models and in human tissues from patients affected by cancer, obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, environmental factors, as well as nuclear DNA genetic variants, have been found to impair mtDNA methylation patterns. Some authors failed to find DNA methylation marks in the mitochondrial genome, suggesting that it is unlikely that this epigenetic modification plays any role in the control of the mitochondrial function. On the other hand, several other studies successfully identified the presence of mtDNA methylation, particularly in the mitochondrial displacement loop (D-loop) region, relating it to changes in both mtDNA gene transcription and mitochondrial replication. Overall, investigations performed until now suggest that methylation and hydroxymethylation marks are present in the mtDNA genome, albeit at lower levels compared to those detectable in nuclear DNA, potentially contributing to the mitochondria impairment underlying several human diseases.

Down syndrome (DS) originates, in most of the cases (95 %), from a full trisomy of chromosome 21. The remaining cases are due to either mosaicism for chromosome 21 or the inheritance of a structural rearrangement leading to partial trisomy of the majority of its content. Full trisomy 21 and mosaicism are not inherited, but originate from errors in cell divisions during the development of the egg, sperm or embryo. In addition, full trisomy for chromosome 21 should be further divided into cases of maternal origin, the majority, and cases of paternal origin, less than 10 %. Among cases of maternal origin, a further stratification should be performed into errors that have occurred or originated during the first meiotic division in the maternal grandmother’s body and errors that occurred later in life during the second maternal meiotic division. This complex scenario suggests that our understanding of the risk factors for trisomy 21 should take into account the above stratification as it reflects different individuals and generations in which the first error has occurred. Unfortunately, most of the available literature is focused on maternal risk factors, and the only certain risk factors for the birth of a child with DS are advanced maternal age at conception and recombination errors, even though the molecular mechanisms leading to chromosome 21 nondisjunction are still a matter of debate. This article critically reviews the hypotheses and the risk factors which have been suggested to contribute to the birth of a child with DS, including folate metabolism, dietary, lifestyle, environmental, occupational, genetic and epigenetic factors, with focus on maternal and paternal risk factors, and taking into account the possible contribution of the maternal grandmother and that of the developing trisomic embryo, in a complex scenario depicting the birth of a child with DS as the result of complex gene–environment interactions and selection processes involving different generations.

Neuromuscular disorders are a heterogeneous group of conditions affecting the neuromuscular system. The aim of this article is to review the major epigenetic findings in motor neuron diseases and major hereditary muscular dystrophies. DNA methylation changes are observed in both hereditary and sporadic forms, and combining DNA methylation analysis with mutational screening holds the potential for better diagnostic and prognostic accuracy. Novel, less toxic and more selective epigenetic drugs are designed and tested in animal and cell culture models of neuromuscular disorders, and non-coding RNAs are being investigated as either disease biomarkers or targets of therapeutic approaches to restore gene expression levels. Overall, neuromuscular disorder epigenetic biomarkers have a strong potential for clinical applications in the near future.

Cancer has traditionally been viewed as a genetic disorder resulting from the accumulation of gene mutations, chromosomal rearrangements, and aneuploidies in somatic cells [...].Cancer has traditionally been viewed as a genetic disorder resulting from the accumulation of gene mutations, chromosomal rearrangements, and aneuploidies in somatic cells [...].

This series of nine articles (six original articles, three reviews) is presented by international experts in cancer epigenetics [...].This series of nine articles (six original articles, three reviews) is presented by international experts in cancer epigenetics [...].

Neuromuscular disorders (NMDs) include several hereditary or acquired conditions that impair the neuromuscular system and muscle function [...].Neuromuscular disorders (NMDs) include several hereditary or acquired conditions that impair the neuromuscular system and muscle function [...].

Individuals affected by neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), are dramatically increasing worldwide. Thus, several efforts are being made to develop strategies for stopping or slowing the spread of these illnesses. Although causative genetic variants linked to the onset of these diseases are known, they can explain only a small portion of cases. The etiopathology underlying the neurodegenerative process in most of the patients is likely due to the interplay between predisposing genetic variants and environmental factors. Epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, are central candidates in translating the effects of environmental factors in genome modulation, and they play a critical role in the etiology of AD, PD, and ALS. Among the main environmental exposures that have been linked to an increased risk for these diseases, accumulating evidence points to the role of heavy metals, pesticides, and air pollutants. These compounds could trigger neurodegeneration through different mechanisms, mainly neuroinflammation and the induction of oxidative stress. However, increasing evidence suggests that they are also capable of inducing epigenetic alterations in neurons. In this article, we review the available literature linking exposure to metals, pesticides, and air pollutants to DNA methylation changes relevant to neurodegeneration.

In 1997 a mutation in the a-synuclein (SNCA) gene was associated with familial autosomal dominant Parkinson’s disease (PD). Since then, several loci (PARK1-15) and genes have been linked to familial forms of the disease. There is now sufficient evidence that six of the so far identified genes at PARK loci (a-synuclein, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2, parkin, PTEN-induced putative kinase 1, DJ-1, and ATP13A2) cause inherited forms of typical PD or parkinsonian syndromes. Other genes at non-PARK loci (MAPT, SCA1, SCA2, spatacsin, POLG1) cause syndromes with parkinsonism as one of the symptoms. The majority of PD cases are however sporadic “idiopathic” forms, and the recent application of genome-wide screening revealed almost 20 genes that might contribute to disease risk. In addition, increasing evidence suggests that epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and small RNA-mediated mechanisms, could regulate the expression of PD-related genes.

Premature-ageing syndromes are a heterogeneous group of rare genetic disorders resembling features of accelerated ageing and resulting from mutations in genes coding forf proteins required for nuclear lamina architecture, DNA repair and maintenance of genome stability, mitochondrial function and other cellular processes. Hutchinson- Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) and Werner syndrome (WS) are two of the best-characterized progeroid syndromes referred to as childhood- and adulthood-progeria, respectively. This article provides an updated overview of the mutations leading to HGPS, WS, and to the spectrum of premature-ageing laminopathies ranging in severity from congenital restrictive dermopathy (RD) to adult-onset atypical WS, including RD-like laminopathies, typical and atypical HGPS, more and less severe forms of mandibuloacral dysplasia (MAD), Nestor- Guillermo progeria syndrome (NGPS), atypical WS, and atypical progeroid syndromes resembling features of HGPS and/or MAD but resulting from impaired DNA repair or mitochondrial functions, including mandibular hypoplasia, deafness, progeroid features, and lipodystrophy (MDPL) syndrome and mandibuloacral dysplasia associated to MTX2 (MADaM). The overlapping signs and symptoms among different premature-ageing syndromes, resulting from both a large genetic heterogeneity and shared pathological pathways underlying these conditions, require an expert clinical evaluation in specialized centers paralleled by next- generation sequencing of panels of genes involved in these disorders in order to establish as early as possible an accurate clinical and molecular diagnosis for a proper patient management. Keywords: Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, Werner syndrome, restrictive dermopathy, mandibuloacral dysplasia, Nestor-Guillermo progeria syndrome, atypical progeroid syndromes