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Hexane is a solvent used extensively in the food industry for the extraction of various products such as vegetable oils, fats, flavours, fragrances, colour additives or other bioactive ingredients. As it is classified as a “processing aid”, it does not have to be declared on the label under current legislation. Therefore, although traces of hexane may be found in final products, especially in processed products, its presence is not known to consumers. However, hexane, and in particular the n-hexane isomer, has been shown to be neurotoxic to humans and has even been listed as a cause of occupational diseases in several European countries since the 1970s. In order to support the European strategy for a toxic-free environment (and toxic-free food), it seemed important to collect scientific information on this substance by reviewing the available literature. This review contains valuable information on the nature and origin of the solvent hexane, its applications in the food industry, its toxicological evaluation and possible alternatives for the extraction of natural products. Numerous publications have investigated the toxicity of hexane, and several studies have demonstrated the presence of its toxic metabolite 2,5-hexanedione (2,5-HD) in the urine of the general, non-occupationally exposed population. Surprisingly, a tolerable daily intake (TDI) has apparently never been established by any food safety authority. Since hexane residues are undoubtedly found in various foods, it seems more than necessary to clearly assess the risks associated with this hidden exposure. A clear indication on food packaging and better information on the toxicity of hexane could encourage the industry to switch towards one of the numerous other alternative extraction methods already developed.

Cocoa husk is considered a waste product after cocoa processing and creates environmental issues. These waste products are rich in polyphenols, methylxanthine, dietary fibers, and phytosterols, which can be extracted and utilized in various food and health products. Cocoa beans represent only 32–34% of fruit weight. Various extraction methods were implemented for the preparation of extracts and/or the recovery of bioactive compounds. Besides conventional extraction methods, various studies have been conducted using advanced extraction methods, including microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE), subcritical water extraction (SWE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE). To include cocoa husk waste products or extracts in different food products, various functional foods such as bakery products, jam, chocolate, beverage, and sausage were prepared. This review mainly focused on the composition and functional characteristics of cocoa husk waste products and their utilization in different food products. Moreover, recommendations were made for the complete utilization of these waste products and their involvement in the circular economy.

With the increase in the world’s population and per capita wealth, oil producers must not only increase edible oil production but also meet the demand for a higher quality and variety of products. Recently, the focus has shifted from single processing steps to the entire vegetable oil production process, with an emphasis on introducing innovative technologies to improve quality and production efficiency. In this review, conventional methods of oilseed storage, processing and extraction are presented, as well as innovative processing and extraction techniques. Furthermore, the parameters most affecting the products’ yields and quality at the industrial level are critically described. The extensive use of hexane for the extraction of most vegetable oils is undoubtedly the main concern of the whole production process in terms of health, safety and environmental issues. Therefore, special attention is paid to environmentally friendly solvents such as ethanol, supercritical CO2, 2-methyloxolane, water enzymatic extraction, etc. The state of the art in the use of green solvents is described and an objective assessment of their potential for more sustainable industrial processes is proposed.

Chestnut peels are a poorly characterized, underexploited by-product of the agri-food industry. This raw material is rich in bioactive compounds, primarily polyphenols and tannins, that can be extracted using different green technologies. Scaling up the process for industrial production is a fundamental step for the valorization of the extract. In this study, subcritical water extraction was investigated to maximize the extraction yield and polyphenol content. Lab-scale procedures have been scaled up to the semi-industrial level as well as the downstream processes, namely, concentration and spray drying. The extract antioxidant capacity was tested using in vitro and cellular assays as well as a preliminary evaluation of its antiadipogenic activity. The temperature, extraction time, and water/solid ratio were optimized, and the extract obtained under these conditions displayed a strong antioxidant capacity both in in vitro and cellular tests. Encouraging data on the adipocyte model showed the influence of chestnut extracts on adipocyte maturation and the consequent potential antiadipogenic activity. Chestnut peel extracts characterized by strong antioxidant power and potential antiadipogenic activity were efficiently obtained by removing organic solvents. These results prompted further studies on fraction enrichment by ultra- and nanofiltration. The semi-industrial eco-friendly extraction process and downstream benefits reported here may open the door to production and commercialization.

This work presents an innovative microwave-assisted subcritical water extraction (MA-SWE) approach for the simultaneous recovery of proteins and phenolic compounds from hemp seeds (HS). The extraction temperature (100-180 °C), time (5-60 min), and solid-to-liquid ratio (1:5-1:30 / ) were optimized via Box-Behnken design. The effects of whole, crushed and defatted HS were investigated, with defatted HS exhibiting higher selectivity for proteins and polyphenols. Two optimization strategies were explored: one maximizing protein and polyphenol yields and another minimizing solvent and energy consumption, while maintaining competitive yields. The maximized conditions (MAPPY) were 180 °C, 57 min, and a ratio of 1:28, providing a protein selectivity of 48.91 g/100 g of dry extract (DE) and a total phenolic content of 7.24 g gallic acid equivalent/100 g DE. Regarding functional properties, both strategies yielded extracts with similar performance; however, the maximization strategy resulted in higher emulsifying capacities. These results support the industrial valorization of defatted HS by MA-SWE under optimized conditions to produce antioxidant- and protein-rich ingredients.

This study proposes a sustainable strategy to valorise strawberry lignocellulosic agro-industrial byproducts through the recovery of antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds (AOM) for use in active edible coatings. Subcritical water extraction (SWE), optimised using response surface methodology, was applied to maximise phenolic content and antioxidant capacity while minimising sugars’ co-extraction. Optimal SWE conditions (120 °C, 5 min, and S/L ratio 40) yielded a total phenolic content (TPC) of 146.9 mg GAE/g DM and an antioxidant activity of 24.8 mg TE/g DM, comparable to ethanolic reflux extraction (138.4 mg GAE/g DM and 23.4 mg TE/g DM). Scale-up in a Parr pressurised reactor achieved 91.2% polyphenol recovery relative to accelerated solvent extraction (ASE). Purification using Amberlite® XAD 7 resin enhanced TPC purity and antioxidant activity more than 2.5-fold, producing a desorbed fraction with a polyphenol purity of 93.9% (w/w, dry basis) and no detectable sugars. The purified AOM was incorporated (1% w/v) into a 1.5% (w) chitosan solution obtained from Hermetia illucens pupal exuviae to produce a biopolymeric active coating. Application to strawberries was associated with a reduction in fungal infection severity (−72%) and incidence (−66.7%) under natural infection conditions. Although fruit firmness declined during storage, coated samples showed significantly better firmness retention. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of combining chitosan with phenolic extracts obtained by SWE to enhance microbial stability and maintain fruit quality.

Despite its severe toxicity and negative environmental impact, hexane remain the solvent of choice for the extraction of vegetable oils. This is in contrast with the constantly growing demand for sustainable and green extraction processes. In recent years a variety of alternatives to hexane have been reported, among them 2-methyloxolane (2-MeOx), which has emerged as a promising bio-based alternative. This study evaluates the possibility of replacing hexane, in the extraction of olive pomace (OP), with 2-MeOx, both dry and saturated with water (4.5%), the latter of which is called 2-MeOx 95.5%. The three solvents have been compared in terms of extraction yield and quality, as well as the lipid and polyphenol profiles of the extracts. The work concluded that both dry 2-MeOx and 2-MeOx 95.5% can replace hexane in OP extraction, resulting in higher yields and extracts richer in phenolic compounds. This study should open the road to further semi-industrial scale investigations toward more sustainable production processes.

Following the publication of this article, concerns were raised regarding a potential undisclosed conflict of interest for the original publication [...]

This overview is intended to shed light on the current state of knowledge on highly efficient cavitation reactors, which are used in industry yet often remain undisclosed. The development of ultrasound (US) and hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) reactors requires a thorough understanding and precise engineering to ensure the efficacy of cavitation processes in larger industrial settings. Successful scaling-up must maintain a high energy density and ensure a homogeneous distribution of cavitation. Industrial reactor designs for both US and HC are typically optimised for continuous flow operations, though some configurations operate in a loop system. This review provides a concise examination of various reactor setups, with examples of relevant chemical and environmental applications, focusing on energy consumption and scalability challenges. Despite the similarities in the effects of acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation, US and HC are best regarded as complementary technologies in industrial applications. This work presents our direct experience in designing novel cavitation reactors for specific applications, incorporating recent advances from the literature and insights from industry. Notably, the synergistic effects of hybrid technologies are gaining attention, particularly the integration of HC with cold plasma, which is emerging as one of the most effective techniques for treating polluted water. These technologies play a crucial role in modern process engineering, and continued advancements in their design and understanding will further expand their industrial applications in chemical processing.

The Mediterranean area is one of the major global producers of agricultural food. However, along the entire supply chain—from farming to food distribution and consumption—food waste represents a significant fraction. Additionally, plant waste residues generated during the cultivation of specific fruits and vegetables must also be considered. This heterogeneous biomass is a valuable source of bioactive compounds and materials that can be transformed into high-performance functional products. By analyzing technical and scientific literature, this review identifies extraction, composite production, and bioconversion as the main strategies for valorizing agricultural by-products and waste. The advantages of these approaches as well as efficiency gains through digitalization are discussed, along with their potential applications in the Mediterranean region to support new research activities and bioeconomic initiatives. Moreover, the review highlights the challenges and disadvantages associated with waste valorization, providing a critical comparison of different studies to offer a comprehensive perspective on the topic. The objective of this review is to evaluate the potential of agricultural waste valorization, identifying effective strategies while also considering their limitations, to contribute to the development of sustainable and innovative solutions in Mediterranean bioeconomy.