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Main conclusion This study provides broad insight into the chloroplast genomes of the subfamily Monsteroideae. The identified polymorphic regions may be suitable for designing unique and robust molecular markers for phylogenetic inference. Monsteroideae is the third largest subfamily (comprises 369 species) and one of the early diverging lineages of the monocot plant family Araceae. The phylogeny of this important subfamily is not well resolved at the species level due to scarcity of genomic resources and suitable molecular markers. Here, we report annotated chloroplast genome sequences of four Monsteroideae species: Spathiphyllum patulinervum , Stenospermation multiovulatum , Monstera adansonii , and Rhaphidophora amplissima . The quadripartite chloroplast genomes (size range 163,335–164,751 bp) consist of a pair of inverted repeats (25,270–25,931 bp), separating a small single copy region (21,448–22,346 bp) from a large single copy region (89,714–91,841 bp). The genomes contain 114 unique genes, including four rRNA genes, 80 protein-coding genes, and 30 tRNA genes. Gene features, amino acid frequencies, codon usage, GC contents, oligonucleotide repeats, and inverted repeats dynamics exhibit similarities among the four genomes. Higher rate of synonymous substitutions was observed as compared to non-synonymous substitutions in 76 protein-coding genes. Positive selection was observed in seven protein-coding genes, including psbK , ndhK , ndhD , rbcL , accD , rps8 , and ycf2 . Our included species of Araceae showed the monophyly in Monsteroideae and other subfamilies. We report 30 suitable polymorphic regions. The polymorphic regions identified here might be suitable for designing unique and robust markers for inferring the phylogeny and phylogeography among closely related species within the genus Spathiphyllum and among distantly related species within the subfamily Monsteroideae. The chloroplast genomes presented here are a valuable contribution towards understanding the molecular evolutionary dynamics in the family Araceae.

The presence-only data stored in natural history collections is the most important source of information available regarding the distribution of organisms. These data and profile techniques can be used to generate species distribution models (SDMs), but pseudo-absences must be generated to use group discriminative techniques. In this study, we evaluated whether the SDMs generated with pseudo-absences are reliable and also if there are differences in the results obtained with profile and group discriminative techniques. Ecuador, South America. The SDMs were generated with a training data set for each of the five species of Anthurium and six different methods: two profile techniques (BIOCLIM and Gower's distance index), three group discriminative techniques [logistic multiple regression (LMR), multivariate adaptative regression splines (MARS) and M axent] and a mixed modelling approach genetic algorithm for rule-set production (GARP), which employs a combination of profile and group discriminative techniques and generates its own pseudo-absences. For LMR, MARS and M axent, three types of absences were generated: (1) random pseudo-absences in equal number to presences and excluding a buffer area around presences (except for M axent, which assumes that this background sample includes presences), (2) a large number (10,000) of random pseudo-absences, also excluding a buffer area around each presence and (3) 'target-group absences' (TGA), consisting of sites where other species of the group have been collected by the specialist, but not the species being modelled. To compare the predictive performance of the SDMs, the area under the curve statistic was calculated using an independent testing data set for each species. MARS, M axent and LMR produce better results than the profile techniques. The models created with TGA are generally more accurate than those generated with pseudo-absences. The advantages and disadvantages of different options for using pseudo-absences and TGA with profile and group discriminative modelling techniques are explained and recommendations are made for the future.

The chloroplast genome provides insight into the evolution of plant species. We de novo assembled and annotated chloroplast genomes of four genera representing three subfamilies of Araceae: Lasia spinosa (Lasioideae), Stylochaeton bogneri, Zamioculcas zamiifolia (Zamioculcadoideae), and Orontium aquaticum (Orontioideae), and performed comparative genomics using these chloroplast genomes. The sizes of the chloroplast genomes ranged from 163,770 bp to 169,982 bp. These genomes comprise 113 unique genes, including 79 protein-coding, 4 rRNA, and 30 tRNA genes. Among these genes, 17–18 genes are duplicated in the inverted repeat (IR) regions, comprising 6–7 protein-coding (including trans-splicing gene rps12), 4 rRNA, and 7 tRNA genes. The total number of genes ranged between 130 and 131. The infA gene was found to be a pseudogene in all four genomes reported here. These genomes exhibited high similarities in codon usage, amino acid frequency, RNA editing sites, and microsatellites. The oligonucleotide repeats and junctions JSB (IRb/SSC) and JSA (SSC/IRa) were highly variable among the genomes. The patterns of IR contraction and expansion were shown to be homoplasious, and therefore unsuitable for phylogenetic analyses. Signatures of positive selection were seen in three genes in S. bogneri, including ycf2, clpP, and rpl36. This study is a valuable addition to the evolutionary history of chloroplast genome structure in Araceae.

This paper highlights the most unique characteristics of Araceae: their high species diversity, high habit diversity, high rates of endemism, and high rates of new species discovery. Also discussed is the origin of the family in the Early Cretaceous period and its modern-day worldwide distribution, which shows high generic diversity in Asia and high species diversity in South America. The last 40 years have shown dramatic increases in the number of species known for most of the Neotropical genera but with most of the growth coming from Central America. The development of computerized determination keys has led to the realization that many more species are likely to be new to science. This study also recommends future directions and localities or regions where most aroid research should be concentrated.

The subfamily Pothoideae belongs to the ecologically important plant family Araceae. Here, we report the chloroplast genomes of two species of the subfamily Pothoideae: Anthurium huixtlense (size: 163,116 bp) and Pothos scandens (size: 164,719 bp). The chloroplast genome of P. scandens showed unique contraction and expansion of inverted repeats (IRs), thereby increasing the size of the large single-copy region (LSC: 102,956 bp) and decreasing the size of the small single-copy region (SSC: 6779 bp). This led to duplication of many single-copy genes due to transfer to IR regions from the small single-copy (SSC) region, whereas some duplicate genes became single copy due to transfer to large single-copy regions. The rate of evolution of protein-coding genes was affected by the contraction and expansion of IRs; we found higher mutation rates for genes that exist in single-copy regions as compared to those in IRs. We found a 2.3-fold increase of oligonucleotide repeats in P. scandens when compared with A. huixtlense , whereas amino acid frequency and codon usage revealed similarities. The ratio of transition to transversion mutations was 2.26 in P. scandens and 2.12 in A. huixtlense . Transversion mutations mostly translated in non-synonymous substitutions. The phylogenetic inference of the limited species showed the monophyly of the Araceae subfamilies. Our study provides insight into the molecular evolution of chloroplast genomes in the subfamily Pothoideae and family Araceae.

This study presents an evaluation of the currently accepted sectional classification of the genus Anthurium Schott (Araceae) in light of a recently published molecular phylogeny for the group. In general, disagreements between these two occur because many diagnostic morphological characters used in the sectional classification turned out to be highly homoplasious within Anthurium, with multiple independent gains or losses of seemingly similar morphologies in distantly related clades. A new sectional classification of Anthurium that more accurately represents species relationships and the evolutionary history of the genus is much needed, and here we propose the first steps toward it. Results from this study suggest that out of the 18 sections and two series recognized in Anthurium, only seven of these groups are monophyletic (i.e., sections Andiphilum (Schott) Croat, Calomystrium (Schott) Engl., Dactylophyllium (Schott) Engl., Leptanthurium (Schott) Engl., Polyphyllium Engl., Tetraspermium (Schott) Engl., and the newly recognized section Multinervia (Croat) Carlsen & Croat, previously a series within section Pachyneurium (Schott) Engl.). All other sections are either not monophyletic or their monophyly could not be accurately tested. A complete revision of the sectional classification of Anthurium will require a more comprehensive taxon sampling and a better supported molecular phylogeny.

A total of nine species of Anthurium Schott sect. Calomystrium Schott (Araceae) from Venezuela are treated. Most of the species have been confused with A. cartilagineum (Desf.) Kunth; a dichotomous key to distinguish them is provided. All but one of these species are endemic to the Cordillera de la Costa in northern Venezuela. Seven species are described as new: A. alfcardozoi Croat, A. coltovarense Croat, A. galipanense Croat, A. georgetatei Croat, A. guaicaipurense Croat & M. Hanson, A. hansonianum Croat, and A. ronliesneri Croat. One additional species, Anthurium species #1, is included in the key and is fully described but is not being formally published owing to inadequate material. In addition, A. cartilagineum (Desf.) Kunth is redescribed, and a more complete description is provided since it is a close relative to several of the species treated here.

Premise of the Study Philodendron is a large genus of ~560 species and among the most conspicuous epiphytic components of Neotropical forests, yet its phylogenetic relationships, timing of divergence, and diversification history have remained unclear. We present a comprehensive phylogenetic study for Philodendron and investigate its diversification, including divergence‐time estimates and diversification rate shift analyses. Methods We performed the largest phylogenetic reconstruction for Philodendron to date, including 125 taxa with a combined dataset of three plastid regions (petD, rpl16, and trnK/matK). We estimated divergence times using Bayesian evolutionary analysis sampling trees and inferred shifts in diversification rates using Bayesian analysis of macroevolutionary mixtures. Key Results We found that Philodendron, its three subgenera, and the closely related genus Adelonema are monophyletic. Within Philodendron subgenus Philodendron, 12 statistically well‐supported clades are recognized. The genus Philodendron originated ~25 mya and a diversification rate upshift was detected at the origin of subgenus Philodendron ~12 mya. Conclusions Philodendron is a species‐rich Neotropical lineage that diverged from Adelonema during the late Oligocene. Within Philodendron, the three subgenera currently accepted are recovered in two lineages: one contains the subgenera Meconostigma and Pteromischum and the other contains subgenus Philodendron. The lineage containing subgenera Meconostigma and Pteromischum underwent a consistent diversification rate. By contrast, a diversification rate upshift occurred within subgenus Philodendron ~12 mya. This diversification rate upshift is associated with the species radiation of the most speciose subgenus within Philodendron. The sections accepted within subgenus Philodendron are not congruent with the clades recovered. Instead, the clades are geographically defined.

The origin of Neotropical species diversity is strongly associated with the geological history of South America. Since the Miocene, a number of species radiations across different Neotropical lineages coincided with the rise of the Andes and the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. The species-rich genus Philodendron Schott (Araceae) is widely distributed across Neotropical rainforests, originating in the Late Oligocene and diversifying more intensely from the Miocene onward. It is likely that its diversification process and distribution patterns are associated with recent geological changes in the Americas. To test this hypothesis, we sampled the species diversity of Philodendron across its entire geographic range and used a combination of three non-coding plastid regions (petD, rpl16, and trnK/matK) to obtain a comprehensive time-calibrated phylogeny. We then inferred geographic range evolution and explored the impact of the Andean orogeny on speciation, extinction, and dispersal. The genus Philodendron originated ~29 million years ago (mya) and experienced the earliest diversification events ~25 mya in the Pan-Amazonian rainforests. From the Middle Miocene onward, multiple geographic range expansion events occurred from Amazonia to southeast Brazil and to the area which would become the Chocó and the northern Andes. From the Pliocene onward, Philodendron reached Central America and the Caribbean islands, and Andean lineages recolonized and diversified in Amazonia. In Philodendron, higher diversification rates are found in the adjacent lowland rainforests of the northern Andes compared with other regions in the Neotropics, demonstrating a potential indirect impact of the Andean uplift on species radiations in lowland regions.

Molecular studies have recently shown that a predominantly Mexican clade of Anthurium Schott species with ovate-cordate to ovate-sagittate leaf blades with glandular punctations on the lower (abaxial) surface is distinct from all other groups of Anthurium. This new section, Cordato-punctatum Croat & Carlsen, is one of three sections of Anthurium essentially restricted to Central America, and it contains six taxa. In this article, we describe and typify this new section, characterize its morphology, compare it to other Central American clades, and provide a current species list with geographic distributions.