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By the 1930s the Liverpool School of Architecture was the most famous British school of architecture in the world, promoting modern architecture and city planning internationally. This book looks at the cultural environment in Liverpool at the turn of the twentieth century which enabled such an important institution to come to fruition. It examines attitudes towards design practice through the work of patrons, practitioners, institutions and theorists in the city, and considers the way their ideas were formed by national and international trends. From a city microcosm of contesting design aesthetics emerged a unique synthesis that was to exert a profound international influence in architectural and planning design.

By the 1930s the Liverpool School of Architecture was the most famous British school of architecture in the world, promoting modern architecture and city planning internationally. This book looks at the cultural environment in Liverpool at the turn of the twentieth century which enabled such an important institution to come to fruition. It examines attitudes towards design practice through the work of patrons, practitioners, institutions and theorists in the city, and considers the way their ideas were formed by national and international trends. From a city microcosm of contesting design aesthetics emerged a unique synthesis that was to exert a profound international influence in architectural and planning design.

Using the Bible as the foundational source and guide, while also bringing contemporary sociological data to the conversation, seven biblical scholars and theologians construct a powerful dialogue about gun violence in America, concluding that guns are incompatible with the God of Christian Scripture. God and Guns is the first book to argue against gun culture from a biblical studies perspective. Bringing the Bible into conversation with contemporary sociological data, the volume breaks new exegetical and critical ground and lays the foundations for further theological work. The scholars assembled in this volume construct a powerful argument against gun violence, concluding that a self-identity based on guns is incompatible with Christian identity. Drawing on their expertise in the Bible's ancient origins and modern usage, they present striking new insights involving psychology, ethics, race, gender, and culture. This collection, carefully edited for clarity and readability, will change conversations—and our culture. Contributors include: * T. M. Lemos * David Lincicum * Shelly Matthews * Yolanda Norton * Brent A. Strawn

By the 1930s the Liverpool School of Architecture was the most famous British school of architecture in the world, promoting modern architecture and city planning internationally. This book looks at the cultural environment in Liverpool at the turn of the twentieth century which enabled such an important institution to come to fruition. It examines attitudes towards design practice through the work of patrons, practitioners, institutions and theorists in the city, and considers the way their ideas were formed by national and international trends. From a city microcosm of contesting design aesthetics emerged a unique synthesis that was to exert a profound international influence in architectural and planning design.

WITHOUT their local cultural environment, William Lever and Charles Reilly would not have been able to contribute to the development of town planning as they did. Equally however, they were themselves an important component part of that culture, and without their energies the channelling of contemporary ideas about planning in the city into the Department of Civic Design would not have taken place. Reilly first met Lever in 1904 after his appointment as Head of the School of Architecture. Reilly wrote to Lever in April of that year, and in his letter invited himself and his students to look at the church and one of the dwellings in Port Sunlight village. After some misunderstandings the meeting between the two men went ahead. ‘It did not,’ Reilly was to say some 30 years later, ‘seem a propitious beginning’. When Conway, formally Roscoe Professor, now Sir Martin, came to Port Sunlight to formally open Hulme Hall later that year, Reilly was invited to dinner by Lever and from this point on their mutually advantageous relationship began. Reilly provided Lever with proposals of a suitable dignity on which to spend his money, and thus enhance his reputation as an architectural patron, and Lever provided the finance by which Reilly was able to extend his power base, both within the University and nationally.In July 1907 Lever was the victor in a libel case he had instigated against the Daily Mail. Encouraged by Reilly, Lever developed a ‘patronly interest’ in the School of Architecture and proceeded to spend the awarded damages on the School of Architecture and the Department of Civic Design. His first act of benevolence in June 1908 was the purchase of the Blue Coat Hospital. Within a week of Reilly's suggestion to Lever that it would be a good site for the School, Lever purchased an option on the building and then offered it to Reilly (or more correctly the University) rent free. Obviously emboldened by this success Reilly then suggested the formation of a Department of Civic Design within the School of Architecture. The wider cultural background to this event has already been discussed, but it does not diminish the sense of astonishment at the alacrity at which Reilly's initiative was taken up by Lever.

THE City of Liverpool School of Architecture and Applied Art was inaugurated in 1895. It has been briefly described by several authors in the past, all of whom acknowledge that the School was an innovative episode in the history of architectural education, in part because of its alliance with the ideas of the Arts and Crafts movement. Its place in the history of architectural education is more easily established than trying to define the Arts and Crafts milieu in which it operated. It was not the first architectural course to be organised in Britain, although it was the first extra-metropolitan one. Nor was it the first full-time course – that had been established by Kings College London three years previously. What made the course unique was a combination of elements; its relative newness, its response to specific cultural circumstances, its funding in part by the municipal authorities, and its adoption of an integrated teaching programme that was briefly to become a teaching norm, principally under the direction of William Lethaby, firstly at the Central College of Arts and Crafts in London and then at the Royal College of Art.The first architectural instruction in England was to be found at the Royal Academy Schools that were inaugurated in 1768. The value of such instruction was historically undistinguished until the Professorship of Architecture was awarded to Sir John Soane who held it from 1806–37. His commitment to his teaching at the Academy was the reason he felt unable to accept the Presidency of the newly founded RIBA in 1834. In 1870 the Academy set up a separate School of Architecture under Phené Spiers, a graduate of the Ecole des Beaux Arts.The first certificated technical architectural education was offered by University College London in 1841 with the appointment of T. L. Donaldson (the first secretary of the RIBA) to the Professorship of Architecture. This took the form of a diploma offered by the Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture. The year 1841 also saw the establishment of an architectural course at King's College London. Both these courses were seen as supplementing, rather than supplanting, the process of office training. During the 1840s the Government School of Design had architectural students in attendance, but there was no provision for an architectural education.

IT should not suprise us that when the aims and objectives of the new Liverpool School of Architecture and Applied Art are scrutinised, a number of contradictions emerge. Neither should it be a suprise to find those contradictions have already been identified in the wider aspects of design culture within the city. A body of opinion sees the Liverpool School of Architecture and Applied Art as a paradigm of Arts and Crafts education; yet even a cursory comparison between Jackson's inaugural address, and Professor Simpson's first scheme of work, shows substantial differences in expectation for the course. Jackson looked to a national vernacular design rooted in the past; Simpson looked to the new experiments in architectural education in the United States. What links the two men was their interest in methodology. If the early American influence on design thinking in Liverpool is emphasised, it fundamentally alters the traditional perception of the evolution of ‘Beaux Arts’ training in Britain, placing its origins in Liverpool a decade earlier than has previously been thought. It also alters the ideological perception of the Beaux Art style as practised at Liverpool in the early twentieth century, because the style emerged from within the Arts and Crafts debate, and was not solely a reaction against its ideas.The Liverpool School was formally opened by the Lord Mayor of Liverpool in the University Arts Theatre on 10 May 1895. His views on architectural education are not of quite the same authority as those of T. G. Jackson, who gave the inaugural address, but are worth a glance in order to gauge the local establishment's opinion of the experiment which was taking place in the city. In his opening speech the Mayor talked of Liverpool's ‘civic love of art’, and painted a picture of slow cultural progress from the instigation of the Society for the Encouragement of Designing, Drawing and Painting in 1768 to its culmination in the municipal funding of the School of Architecture. Philip Rathbone's role in helping to establish the School was formally acknowledged, and the man himself spoke with the cultural emphasis that would be expected from him. The Daily Post reported him saying that: ‘it was only right and fair that they should help skilled labour to become more common.

FREDERICK Simpson's interest in the architectural education initiatives of the United States of America was not the only interest in the USA in Liverpool at the time of the inauguration of the Liverpool School. William Lever, who was such an important figure in both reflecting and moulding architectural attitudes in Merseyside, became interested in the new American architectural styles, and there is evidence of considerable traffic by the Liverpudlian architectural community between the city and the USA. Economic contacts between the port and the United States of America were of course fundamental to its survival, and along with trade connections there were also those of travel. It was possible to get to New York in a week, and to travel at a variety of levels of comfort and expense. The passenger traffic to the USA was considerable and it would be surprising if there had not been any contact between the two cultures. There was a familiarity with American life in Liverpool at all social levels, from sailors to merchants. American news was regularly reported in the local papers, The Courier and The Daily Post – a necessity as there was a constant flow of visitors to and from the United States of America. Economically, New York was more important to Liverpool than London, and lavish municipal entertainment for visiting American professionals was commonplace.General anecdotal awareness of the architectural wonders of the United States of America was high. On his world tour during 1892, Lever wrote a regular series of travel articles for the Birkenhead News. A flavour of the local conception of the USA can be gleaned from his descriptions. From New York he wrote of ‘the hustle and bustle of the place, the nervous energy, the vitality and force of the American people, and the high speed at which buildings there are being put up’. He reported back to readers on the marvels of the architecture of the Chicago World's Fair a year before its formal opening, and it can be assumed, as the Beaux Arts style was to so drastically modify the development of Port Sunlight village, discussed its merits with his architectural circle on his return.By 1895 Lever had opened offices in New York and Philadelphia, and thus opened a further channel by which cultural interchange could take place.