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Areas beyond national jurisdiction, or the high seas, are vital to life on Earth. However, the conservation of these areas, for example, through area‐based management tools (ABMTs), is challenging, particularly when accounting for global change. Using decision science, integrated population models, and a Critically Endangered seabird (Kuaka; Pelecanoides whenuahouensis) as a case study, we evaluated potential ABMTs in the high seas under global change and different governance structures, while accounting for uncertainty and imperfect compliance. Our study highlighted that global change in these areas will likely cause population declines of ∼60% by 2050. However, decisive conservation action could cost‐effectively address predicted declines, particularly when implemented as soon as possible and under the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Treaty. We illustrate how decision science can transparently navigate a complex seascape of management decisions and we advocate for its wider integration in the management of the largest sections of our planet, the high seas.

Unresolved taxonomy of threatened species is problematic for conservation as the field relies on species being distinct taxonomic units. Differences in breeding habitat and results from a preliminary molecular analysis indicated that the New Zealand population of the South Georgian Diving Petrel (Pelecanoides georgicus) was a distinct, yet undescribed, species. We measured 11 biometric characters and scored eight plumage characters in 143 live birds and 64 study skins originating from most populations of P. georgicus, to assess their taxonomic relationships. We analysed differences with principal component analyses (PCA), factorial ANOVAs, and Kruskal-Wallis rank sum tests. Results show that individuals from New Zealand differ significantly from P. georgicus from all other populations as following: 1) longer wings, 2) longer outer tail feathers, 3) deeper bills, 4) longer heads, 5) longer tarsi, 6) limited collar extent, 7) greater extent of contrasting scapulars, 8) larger contrasting markings on the secondaries, 9) paler ear coverts, 10) paler collars, and 11) paler flanks. Furthermore, we used a species delimitation test with quantitative phenotypic criteria; results reveal that the New Zealand population of P. georgicus indeed merits species status. We hereby name this new species Pelecanoides whenuahouensis sp. nov. Due to severe reductions in its range and the very low number of remaining birds (~150 individuals limited to a single breeding colony on Codfish Island/Whenua Hou) the species warrants listing as ‘Critically Endangered’. An abstract in the Māori language/Te Reo Māori can be found in S1 File.

Artificial light at night (ALAN) is considered a major threat to biodiversity, yet impacts of offshore ALAN on seabirds remain poorly understood. Particularly understudied are deck strikes (collisions of seabirds with vessels due to ALAN‐induced disorientation). To infer deck strike risks to the critically endangered Whenua Hou Diving‐petrel (Pelecanoides whenuahouensis; WHDP), we estimated nightly vessel counts and associated probability of floodlight use in close proximity of their only breeding colony, number of WHDP commutes, duration of phenophases, and ultimately the cumulative exposure to floodlights using a Bayesian framework. The estimated nightly number of vessels was 0.76 (0.64–0.89), 31% (21%–38%) of which used floodlights. WHDPs were potentially exposed to 28.9 (19.7–39.7) floodlights per breeding period. There was no evidence for inter‐annual variation in vessel counts, floodlight use, or WHDP activity, despite varying environmental conditions. WHDP activity, and therefore risk, was highest during courtship and post‐guard. Yet, there was potential for deck strikes throughout the breeding period, which could impact WHDPs. We identify key research questions (likelihood of a deck strike occurring, survival of deck‐struck birds, and post‐release survival of deck‐struck birds). In the meantime, small behavioral changes of vessel operators could be a successful approach to protecting seabirds from offshore ALAN. Tuhinga whakarāpopoto Ko te rama tāwhai ite pō (ALAN) he mea whakamōrearea i te rerenga rauropi, engari ko ngā pānga ote ALAN ki ngā manu moana ki tai kāore anō kia āta whakamāramatia. Ko ngāāhuatanga kāore anō kia āta tātari ko te tukinga kāraho (ko te tūtukinga o ngāmanu moana e tāhurihuri ana ki ngā waka, nā te ALAN). Ki te whakapae atu i temōreareatanga o te tukinga kāraho ki te Kuaka Whenua Hou (Pelecanoideswhenuahouensis; WHDP) he manu e ngaro haere ana tōna whare ora, i whakatau tatate tini o ngā waka e tere i te pō me te tūponotanga e hāngai ana ki tewhakamahinga o te tūrama raharaha e pātata ana ki pūrei kōhanga anake ō rātou,te maha o ngā rerenga o ngā WHDP, te roa o te tauwāhi mātai, ā, i te otinga kuawhakamahia te anga ‘Bayesian’ ki te ine i ngā pānga tapeke o ēnei manu ki ērārama. Ko te whakatau tata o te maha o ngā waka i ia pō ko te 0.76 (0.64‐.089),31% (21%‐38%) o ēnei i whakamahia ngā tūrama rarharaha. I hōrakerake ai pea ngāWHDP kia 28.9 (19.7‐39.7) ngā wā i ia wā whakatipu. Kāore he taunakitanga i tererekētanga o te maha o ngā waka, te whakamahinga o te tūrama raharaha, te mahio te WHDP i waenga i ngā tau, ahakoa he rerekē ngā āhuatanga o te taiao. Ko temahi a ngā WHDP, waihoki ko te pānga o te mōrearea ki a rātou hoki, kua pikiake i te wā o te whakaipoipo, ā, mō muri hoki i tā rātou tūtei hua. Arā tonu tepitomata ka tukia pea te kāraho i te wā katoa o te wa whakatīpu, mā reira e pākino ai ki ngā WHDP. Ka tūtohutia e mātou ngā pātai rangahau matua (tetingatanga o te tukinga kāraho, te oranga tonutanga rānei o te manu kua tukia kite kāraho, me te oranga tonutanga o te manu kua whakamātūtū, ā, kua whakahokiakētia ki tōna ao). Āianei, mā te paku panonihanga o ngā whanonga hautū waka ongā kaihautū waka ka tiaki pai ngā manu moana i te ALAN ki tai. Using monitoring of offshore ALAN dynamics, Whenua Hou Diving‐petrel behavior, and a Bayesian framework, we estimated that birds were exposed to 28.9 (19.7–39.7) spotlights per breeding period, which could be detrimental to this critically endangered species. We identify key research questions for future investigations, but in the meantime, relatively small behavioral changes of vessel operators could be a successful approach to protecting seabirds from offshore ALAN.

Without insights into the threats affecting species across their distributions and throughout their annual cycles, effective conservation management cannot be applied. The Whenua Hou diving petrel Pelecanoides whenuahouensis (WHDP) is a Critically Endangered small seabird whose offshore habits and threats are poorly understood. We tracked WHDPs year-round in 2015/16, 2017/18, and 2018/19 using global location-sensing immersion loggers to identify offshore distribution, movements, behaviour, and overlap with commercial fishing effort. During the breeding period, WHDPs ranged from southern Aotearoa (New Zealand) to Maukahuka (Auckland Islands). After breeding, WHDPs migrated southwest towards the Polar Front south of Australia, exhibited clockwise movements, and returned to their breeding grounds via the Subantarctic Front. During the non-breeding period, WHDPs exhibited extreme aquatic behaviour and spent >95% of their time on, or under, water. The core areas used consistently during breeding and non-breeding periods warrant listing as Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas. Spatiotemporal overlap of commercial fishing effort with breeding distributions was considerable, in contrast with non-breeding distributions. Spatiotemporal management of anthropogenic activity around the breeding colony during the breeding period could help protect WHDPs, but measures should be subjected to a structured decision-making framework. Our results illustrate the importance of year-round studies to inform conservation of marine species.

The population of the recently-described Whenua Hou diving petrel Pelecanoides whenuahouensis comprises c. 200 adults that all breed in a single 0.018 km2 colony in a dune system vulnerable to erosion. The species would therefore benefit from the establishment of a second breeding population through a translocation. However, given the small size of the source population, it is essential that translocations are informed by carefully targeted monitoring data. We therefore modelled nest survival at the remaining population in relation to potential drivers (distance to sea and burrow density of conspecifics and a competitor) across three breeding seasons with varying climatic conditions as a result of the southern oscillation cycle. We also documented breeding phenology and burrow attendance, and measured chicks, to generate growth curves. We estimated egg survival at 0.686, chick survival at 0.890, overall nest survival at 0.612, and found no indication that nest survival was affected by distance to sea or burrow density. Whenua Hou diving petrels laid eggs in mid October, eggs hatched in late November, and chicks fledged in mid January at c. 86% of adult weight. Burrow attendance (i.e. feeds) decreased from 0.94 to 0.65 visits per night as chicks approached fledging. Nest survival and breeding biology were largely consistent among years despite variation in climate. Nest survival estimates will facilitate predictions about future population trends and suitability of prospective translocation sites. Knowledge of breeding phenology will inform the timing of collection of live chicks for translocation, and patterns of burrow attendance combined with growth curves will structure hand-rearing protocols. A tuhinga whakarāpopoto (te reo Māori abstract) can be found in the Supplementary material.

Small seabird species are often threatened by predation from invasive species at their breeding colonies and considerable efforts are invested into mitigating this threat. However, invasive predators may not be the only onshore threat affecting small seabird species. The South Georgia Diving-petrel Pelecanoides georgicus (SGDP) is a small seabird species, considered ‘Nationally Critical’ in New Zealand. Our objective was to identify terrestrial threats to the species at their sole remaining breeding colony in New Zealand, Codfish Island (Whenua Hou), following the successful eradication of invasive predators. To achieve our objective, we assessed the influence of five physical, three competition/attraction and three plant variables on SGDP nest site selection with generalised linear models (GLMs) and compared models using an information theoretic approach. Models including the distance to sea, slope, aspect, and sand flux outperformed other models and showed selection for steep seaward-facing foredunes with mobile soils. No invasive plant and competition/attraction variables were included in the best performing models. These results suggest that, due to the proximity of their preferred nesting habitat to the springtide line and the overall fragility of the foredunes, SGDPs on Codfish Island are extremely vulnerable to stochastic events and catastrophes, such as storms and storm surges. Eradication efforts directed at invasive predators on Codfish Island appear thus insufficient to safeguard this SGDP colony, necessitating further conservation strategies to secure the continued survival of this population.

Seabirds are highly threatened, including by fisheries bycatch. Accurate understanding of offshore distribution of seabirds is crucial to address this threat. Tracking technologies revolutionised insights into seabird distributions but tracking data may contain a variety of biases. We tracked two threatened seabirds (Salvin’s Albatross Thalassarche salvini n = 60 and Black Petrel Procellaria parkinsoni n = 46) from their breeding colonies in Aotearoa (New Zealand) to their non-breeding grounds in South America, including Peru, while simultaneously completing seven surveys in Peruvian waters. We then used species distribution models to predict occurrence and distribution using either data source alone, and both data sources combined. Results showed seasonal differences between estimates of occurrence and distribution when using data sources independently. Combining data resulted in more balanced insights into occurrence and distributions, and reduced uncertainty. Most notably, both species were predicted to occur in Peruvian waters during all four annual quarters: the northern Humboldt upwelling system for Salvin’s Albatross and northern continental shelf waters for Black Petrels. Our results highlighted that relying on a single data source may introduce biases into distribution estimates. Our tracking data might have contained ontological and/or colony-related biases (e.g. only breeding adults from one colony were tracked), while our survey data might have contained spatiotemporal biases (e.g. surveys were limited to waters <200 nm from the coast). We recommend combining data sources wherever possible to refine predictions of species distributions, which ultimately will improve fisheries bycatch management through better spatiotemporal understanding of risks.

Unresolved taxonomy of threatened species is problematic for conservation as the field relies on species being distinct taxonomic units. Differences in breeding habitat and results from a preliminary molecular analysis indicated that the New Zealand population of the South Georgian Diving Petrel (Pelecanoides georgicus) was a distinct, yet undescribed, species. We measured 11 biometric characters and scored eight plumage characters in 143 live birds and 64 study skins originating from most populations of P. georgicus, to assess their taxonomic relationships. We analysed differences with principal component analyses (PCA), factorial ANOVAs, and Kruskal-Wallis rank sum tests. Results show that individuals from New Zealand differ significantly from P. georgicus from all other populations as following: 1) longer wings, 2) longer outer tail feathers, 3) deeper bills, 4) longer heads, 5) longer tarsi, 6) limited collar extent, 7) greater extent of contrasting scapulars, 8) larger contrasting markings on the secondaries, 9) paler ear coverts, 10) paler collars, and 11) paler flanks. Furthermore, we used a species delimitation test with quantitative phenotypic criteria; results reveal that the New Zealand population of P. georgicus indeed merits species status. We hereby name this new species Pelecanoides whenuahouensis sp. nov. Due to severe reductions in its range and the very low number of remaining birds (~150 individuals limited to a single breeding colony on Codfish Island/Whenua Hou) the species warrants listing as 'Critically Endangered'. An abstract in the Maori language/Te Reo Maori can be found in S1 File.

Theories accounting for the maintenance of high tree diversity in tropical rain forests range from those proposing that tropical trees are highly co-evolved niche specialists, to those proposing that they are mostly generalist, undergoing random drift. We test these hypotheses at a meaningful, community-wide scale using data on the spatial patterns and habitat preferences of all species of Aporosa (Euphorbiaceae) growing on two large rain forest plots in Malaysia. Second-order spatial pattern analyses using a method based on Ripley's K function showed that Aporosa species formed spatially distinct assemblages, and a randomization procedure suggested that these assemblages were explained by biases in their distributions in relation to habitat types. Soil type, as determined by parent material, was an important determinant of habitat preferences, although topography and forest structure also accounted for some variation. We conclude that niche differentiation is an important mechanism contributing to the coexistence of Aporosa species at the community scale. However, spatial separation due to these differential habitat biases accounted for only a portion of the high species richness observed in this genus, so other mechanisms must also be sought to account fully for the maintenance of tropical tree species richness.