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We investigate the coupling between H, minor, trace, and ultra-trace element incorporations in 17 olivines from ten different locations covering various petrological origins: magmatic, hydrothermal, and mantle-derived context. Concentrations in major element are determined by micro X-ray fluorescence. Minor, trace, and ultra-trace elements are determined by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Hydrogen concentrations are quantified using unpolarized and polarized Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Forsterite contents (83.2–94.1%) reflect the petrogenetic diversity. Hydrogen concentrations range from 0 to 54 ppm H2O wt. Minor element concentrations (Ni + Mn) range from 3072 to 4333 ppm, and impurities are dominated by Ni, Mn, Ca or B. Total trace element concentrations range from 8.2 to 1473 ppm. Total rare Earth and extended ultra-trace elements concentrations are very low (< 0.5 ppm). Magmatic and hydrothermal olivines show the most and least amount of impurities, respectively, and mantle-derived olivines have concentrations between these two extremes. Combined with minor, trace, and ultra-trace element concentrations, the hydrogen concentrations, and FTIR OH bands reflect the point defect diversity imposed by different geological settings. Hydrogen concentrations are inversely correlated with divalent impurities, indicating their competition for vacancies. However, a broad positive correlation is also found between OH bands at 3575 and 3525 cm−1 and Ti, confirming the existence of Ti-clinohumite-like point defect in mantle olivines. Nonetheless, Ti does not exclusively control hydrogen incorporation in olivine due to the co-existence with other mechanisms, and its effect appears diluted. Our results confirm that hydrogen behaves as a peculiar incompatible element, and furthermore as an opportunistic impurity in olivine.

Despite the hazard posed by earthquakes, we still lack fundamental understanding of the processes that control fault lubrication behind a propagating rupture front and enhance ground acceleration. Laboratory experiments show that fault materials dramatically weaken when sheared at seismic velocities (>0.1 m s −1 ). Several mechanisms, triggered by shear heating, have been proposed to explain the coseismic weakening of faults, but none of these mechanisms can account for experimental and seismological evidence of weakening. Here we show that, in laboratory experiments, weakening correlates with local temperatures attained during seismic slip in simulated faults for diverse rock-forming minerals. The fault strength evolves according to a simple, material-dependent Arrhenius-type law. Microstructures support this observation by showing the development of a principal slip zone with textures typical of sub-solidus viscous flow. We show evidence that viscous deformation (at either sub- or super-solidus temperatures) is an important, widespread and quantifiable coseismic lubrication process. The operation of these highly effective fault lubrication processes means that more energy is then available for rupture propagation and the radiation of hazardous seismic waves. Viscous deformation is a potentially prevalent mechanism of fault lubrication during earthquakes, according to laboratory experiments that simulate seismic faulting of various rock-forming minerals.

The mechanical properties of olivine-rich rocks are key to determining the mechanical coupling between Earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere. In crystalline materials, the motion of crystal defects is fundamental to plastic flow 1 – 4 . However, because the main constituent of olivine-rich rocks does not have enough slip systems, additional deformation mechanisms are needed to satisfy strain conditions. Experimental studies have suggested a non-Newtonian, grain-size-sensitive mechanism in olivine involving grain-boundary sliding 5 , 6 . However, very few microstructural investigations have been conducted on grain-boundary sliding, and there is no consensus on whether a single or multiple physical mechanisms are at play. Most importantly, there are no theoretical frameworks for incorporating the mechanics of grain boundaries in polycrystalline plasticity models. Here we identify a mechanism for deformation at grain boundaries in olivine-rich rocks. We show that, in forsterite, amorphization takes place at grain boundaries under stress and that the onset of ductility of olivine-rich rocks is due to the activation of grain-boundary mobility in these amorphous layers. This mechanism could trigger plastic processes in the deep Earth, where high-stress conditions are encountered (for example, at the brittle–plastic transition). Our proposed mechanism is especially relevant at the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary, where olivine reaches the glass transition temperature, triggering a decrease in its viscosity and thus promoting grain-boundary sliding. Amorphization at grain boundaries in olivine-rich rocks under stress and consequent grain-boundary sliding could explain the decrease in viscosity between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

Mantle flow involves large strains of polymineral aggregates. The strongly anisotropic plastic response of each individual grain in the aggregate results from the interactions between neighbouring grains and the continuity of material displacement across the grain boundaries. Orthorhombic olivine, which is the dominant mineral phase of the Earth’s upper mantle, does not exhibit enough slip systems to accommodate a general deformation state by intracrystalline slip without inducing damage. Here we show that a more general description of the deformation process that includes the motion of rotational defects referred to as disclinations can solve the olivine deformation paradox. We use high-resolution electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD) maps of deformed olivine aggregates to resolve the disclinations. The disclinations are found to decorate grain boundaries in olivine samples deformed experimentally and in nature. We present a disclination-based model of a high-angle tilt boundary in olivine, which demonstrates that an applied shear induces grain-boundary migration through disclination motion. This new approach clarifies grain-boundary-mediated plasticity in polycrystalline aggregates. By providing the missing mechanism for describing plastic flow in olivine, this work will permit multiscale modelling of the rheology of the upper mantle, from the atomic scale to the scale of the flow. Using electron backscattering diffraction maps of deformed olivine to resolve the disclinations at grain boundaries, combined with a disclination-based model of a high-angle tilt boundary in olivine, reveals the missing mechanism for describing plastic flow in polycrystalline olivine: an applied shear induces grain-boundary migration through disclination motion. How olivine deforms Olivine is the most abundant upper-mantle mineral — and the weakest under a wide range of thermo-mechanical conditions — so its deformation under stress is an important constraint on mantle behaviour. Patrick Cordier et al . present a model for the deformation of olivine aggregates that includes the motion of rotational defects — referred to as 'disclinations' — a factor neglected in previous studies of mantle rheology. The authors conclude that such disclination motion could provide the missing mechanism for describing plastic flow in olivine, which should enable multiscale modelling of the rheology of the upper mantle, from the atomic scale to large-scale mantle flow.

The hydrogen content of nominally anhydrous minerals is of great interest, because it can influence many physical and mechanical properties of mantle rocks. Moreover, the hydrogen diffusion profiles can be used to constrain timescales related to magma eruptions. Here, we report models of ionic diffusion for trace elements in anisotropic crystals and apply them to hydrogen diffusing out of mantle-derived olivine. We first compare and discuss the characteristics of 1D and 3D models and show that only 3D anisotropic diffusion models can lead to diffusion profiles exhibiting non-equilibrium plateau at the center of the solid along the slowest axis, as measured in natural samples. In a second part, we discuss the differences between hydration and dehydration of olivine for diffusion that is linked to two different atomic sites involved in hydrogen mobility. Finally, we apply our 3D anisotropic model to previous results on mantle-derived olivine from Pali-aike to better characterize diffusion coefficients and their anisotropy that could be relevant for dehydration of olivine. Our results show that dehydration has to be strongly anisotropic, with a fast [100] axis and a significantly slower [001] axis.

The incorporation and diffusion of hydrogen in San Carlos olivine (Fo90) single crystals were studied by performing experiments under hydrothermal conditions. The experiments were carried out either at 1.5 GPa, 1,000°C for 1.5 h in a piston cylinder apparatus or at 0.2 GPa, 900°C for 1 or 20 h in a cold-seal vessel. The oxygen fugacity was buffered using Ni–NiO, and the silica activity was buffered by adding San Carlos orthopyroxene powders. Polarized Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was utilized to quantify the hydroxyl distributions in the samples after the experiments. The resulting infrared spectra reproduce the features of FTIR spectra that are observed in olivine from common mantle peridotite xenoliths. The hydrogen concentration at the edges of the hydrogenated olivine crystals corresponds to concentration levels calculated from published water solubility laws. Hydrogen diffusivities were determined for the three crystallographic axes from profiles of water content as a function of position. The chemical diffusion coefficients are comparable to those previously reported for natural iron-bearing olivine. At high temperature, hydrogenation is dominated by coupled diffusion of protons and octahedrally coordinated metal vacancies where the vacancy diffusion rate limits the process. From the experimental data, we determined the following diffusion laws (diffusivity in m2 s−1, activation energies in kJ mol−1): for diffusion along [100] and [010]; for diffusion along [001]. These diffusion rates are fast enough to modify significantly water contents within olivine grains in xenoliths ascending from the mantle.

Olivine, a ferromagnesian orthosilicate, is the most abundant mineral in Earth's upper mantle and is stable down to the olivine–wadsleyite phase transition, which defines the 410 km depth mantle transition zone. Olivine also occurs in crustal environments in metamorphic and hydrothermal rocks and is expected to be the major mineral constituent of the Martian and Venusian mantles. The olivine atomic structure is also used in materials science to manufacture lithium batteries. Like any other crystalline solid, including minerals, olivine never occurs with a perfect crystalline structure: defects in various dimensions are ubiquitous, from point, line, and planar defects to three-dimensional (3-D) inclusions. In this contribution, I review the current state of the art of defects in olivine and several implications for key processes occurring in Earth's mantle. Intrinsic and extrinsic point defects are detailed, exemplifying the astonishing diversity of atomic impurities in mantle-derived olivine. Linear defects, one of the key defect types responsible for ductile deformation in crystalline solids, are examined in light of recent progress in 3-D transmission electron microscopy, which has revealed an important diversity of dislocation slip systems. I summarize the principal characteristics of interface defects in olivine: the free surface, grain and interface boundaries, and internal planar defects. As the least-studied defects to date, interface defects represent an important challenge for future studies and are the main application of numerical simulation methods in materials science. I provide an overview of melt, fluid, and mineral inclusions, which are widely studied in volcanology and igneous petrology. Special attention is given to new crystalline defects that act as deformation agents: disclinations (rotational defects) and the potential occurrence of disconnections in olivine, both of which are expected to occur along or near grain boundaries. Finally, I detail outstanding questions and research directions that will further our understanding of the crystalline specificities and paradoxes of olivine and olivine-rich rocks and ultimately their implications for the dynamics of Earth's upper mantle.

A San Carlos olivine polycrystal has been deformed under uppermost mantle conditions, by compression at 900 °C, at a strain rate of 1.1 × 10−5 s−1, under a confining pressure of 300 MPa, using the Paterson press. Transmission electron tomography of dislocations has been performed by scanning transmission electron microscopy, by conventional transmission electron microscopy using the weak-beam dark-field technique, associated with precession or not, in order to determine the glide planes of [001] screw dislocations. This recent technique is the most suitable one since most [001] dislocations exhibit straight screw segments due to the high lattice friction on this character at low temperature. We find that [001] dislocations glide in (100), (010) and {110} as already reported, but also more unexpectedly in {120} and {130}. We show that at 900 °C, [001] {110} glide is dominant in polycrystals. We have, however, noted and characterized numerous cross-slip events in the specimen.

Hydrogen can be stored in the structure of nominally anhydrous minerals as point defects, and these impurities substantially modify many physical properties of Earth’s mantle minerals. However, mantle rocks are composed of mineral grains separated by grain boundaries and interphase grains boundaries. Therefore, as a potential hydrogen reservoir, grain boundaries should be given proper attention. Here, I report an experimental investigation into hydrogen diffusion through grain boundaries in polycrystalline aggregates. Sintering and diffusion experiments were performed using a gas-medium high-pressure vessel at under pressure of 300 MPa and over a temperature range of 900–1,250°C. The diffusion assembly consisted of a polycrystalline cylinder of aluminous spinel + olivine crystals with a talc cylinder as the main hydrogen source. A Ni capsule was used to buffer the oxygen fugacity at Ni–NiO. Experimental durations varied from 5 min to 5 h. The presence of hydrogen in the crystals was measured by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The calculation of the diffusion coefficients was based on the estimation of the characteristic distance. The absence or presence of hydrogen recorded by the ‘hydrogen sensor’ olivines embedded in the aggregate allows the estimation of bounds on this characteristic distance. Results presented here suggest that hydrogen effective diffusion coefficients are only one order of magnitude faster (~10 −9  m 2 s −1 at 1,000°C) than in an olivine single crystal along the [100] axis. Resulting diffusion coefficients for hydrogen in grain boundary are four orders of magnitude faster than in a single crystal, but this diffusivity is not fast enough to affect hydrogen mobility in mantle rocks with grain sizes greater than ~1 mm. Thus, very limited chemical homogenization would occur using grain boundaries diffusion in mantle hydrous peridotite for incompatible and volatile element, such as hydrogen.