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Exosomes can be defined as extracellular vesicles, of size ranging from 30 to 150 nm, secreted from almost all kinds of cells and can also be obtained from the body fluids. Exosomes have different components depending on the type of cell from which they originate. Exosomes are capable of transporting various molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, chemical compounds and metabolites. Experiments show that exosomes can perform important functions in cell growth, migration, differentiation, neuronal signalling, immune cell modulation. Exosomes can also be used in cancer therapy, as they can be key players in intercellular communication and signalling. Experiments have also demonstrated that exosomes are chief players in viral persistence and dissemination. The reasons why application of exosomes in targeted therapy is gaining significance are their ability to initiate cellular responses, high tolerance levels in host cells and high efficiency in penetrating other cells. Exosomes can be used both as therapeutic agents and escorts of drugs. Even though numerous studies have been performed in search of better anticancer therapies, most of them have come to a halt due to the failure in achieving a therapy best in all parameters. However, both in vitro and in vivo application of exosomes in diagnosis and therapy of tumours are prospective and has a future.

Exosomes, small extracellular vesicles secreted by cells, have emerged as pivotal players in cell‐to‐cell communication. Plant‐derived exosomes, in particular, are gaining attention for their potential therapeutic applications in nano‐medicine. These vesicles are naturally occurring nanoparticles that carry bioactive molecules such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Due to their biocompatibility, low toxicity, and ability to traverse biological barriers, plant‐derived exosomes present a promising alternative to synthetic nanoparticles for drug delivery, especially in cancer and microbial infection therapy. Exosomes are secreted by almost every cell and are profusely present in all living organisms, making them excellent candidates for a large spectrum of research and applications. This paper describes the highly organized and regulated biosynthesis of exosomes and the prospects of their application in cancer therapy and treatment of microbial infections.

Strontium Zirconate (SrZrO₃) is a well-known perovskite-type material that has generated significant interest in materials research due to its unique structural and functional features. In addition, it has appeared as a potential photocatalyst in the realm of environmental remediation and energy conversion. The electronic structure and structural geometry of the SrZrO 3 crystal were computed employing the five functionals of GGA, including GGA with PBE, GGA with RPBE, GGA with PW91, GGA with WC, and GGA with PBEsol, as well as DFT + U using by computational approaches. Next, to improve the photocatalytic activity with reduced band gap, the doping by 4%, 8%, and 12% of Ge atoms in substituting Zr atoms has the empirical formula: SrZr 0.96 Ge 0.04 O 3 , SrZr 0.92 Ge 0.08 O 3 and SrZr 0.88 Ge 0.12 O 3 , respectively. Secondly, GGA with PBE method conveyed almost overlapping band gap (3.72 eV) with the experimental value at 3.72 eV for standard, SrZrO 3 crystal. As a result, it was used for calculation of the density of state (DOS), the partial density of state (PDOS), and optical properties. At last, the absorption ability regarding their photocatalytic activity against methylene blue (MB) dye was assessed and calculated. First of all, the band gaps by the most accurate method of GGA with PBE are at 3.72, 2.43, 2.18, and 1.20 eV for SrZrO 3 , SrZr 0.96 Ge 0.04 O 3 , SrZr 0.92 Ge 0.08 O 3 and SrZr 0.88 Ge 0.12 O 3 , respectively. Secondly, having the sharp peak for all crystals in valence band (VB), they are considered as p-type semiconductor materials, creating holes in the VB thereby enabling more hydroxyl free radical for photocatalysis. Doping showed no effect on absorbance at photon energies greater than 4.0 eV, but it can have an effect at lower photon energies, which is more supportive of band gap or electronic structure. In case of absorption, SrZr 0.88 Ge 0.12 O 3 illustrates the highest photocatalytic activity against MB dye, and have a larger surface energy.

Plant‐derived exosomes (PDEs) are extracellular vesicles (EVs) occurring naturally,which have propitious applications in the development of cost‐effective and fruitful cancer therapy with minimum aftereffects and ramifications. Recent advancements in research based on PDEs demonstrate their extraordinary advantages in cancer therapy. The components of PDEs exhibit accomplished cancer prevention activity and having insignificant or negligible toxicity. The conventional methods to deliver drugs to the target have various problems, several of which can be solved by using PDEs for drug delivery. The main constituents of PDEs are proteins, lipids, DNA and RNA. PDEs are believed to revolutionize cancer therapy due to their magnificent attributes, but only a few clinical trials on PDEs are in progress. The mechanisms and regulations by which PDEs execute anticancer properties are yet not completely understood. Hence, research are conducted worldwide to understand the mechanisms of action of cancer antagonist PDEs more comprehensively and perspicuously. Modified PDEs have prospect in evolution of precision medicine which can bring a new dimension in the treatment of cancer.

Background and Aims The human Rhinovirus, a positive‐sense, single‐stranded RNA virus within the Enterovirus genus of the Picornaviridae family, is the most prevalent viral pathogen in humans and the primary cause of the common cold (Verywell Health 2024). Virus‐host interactions, particularly receptor‐mediated adhesion, are pivotal in viral pathogenesis. Competitive inhibition and the use of anti‐adhesive agents have emerged as potential strategies to prevent viral docking. This study aims to explore the structural biology of rhinovirus receptors, specifically the canyon‐like depressions involved in host cell recognition, and investigate molecular approaches to minimize infection and reduce recovery time. Methods A comprehensive structural analysis of human Rhinovirus 14 was conducted, focusing on its unique surface depressions (canyons) surrounding the five‐fold axes. Literature was reviewed for monoclonal antibody interactions via hybridoma technology, as well as anti‐adhesive agents like alginic acid, gelatin, chitosan, and carboxymethyl cellulose. Molecular docking simulations were referenced to evaluate the potential of organic compounds to disrupt viral adhesion. Results The canyon regions on the viral capsid were confirmed as receptor‐binding sites that are structurally shielded from antibody access, allowing the virus to evade immune detection. Anti‐adhesive agents demonstrated theoretical efficacy in competitively inhibiting receptor‐ligand interactions at these sites. Monoclonal antibodies, while effective in certain contexts, showed limited access to conserved binding residues due to spatial constraints. Organic compounds with flexible conformational geometry showed potential in blocking receptor sites by steric hindrance. Conclusion The structural characteristics of human Rhinovirus 14 play a crucial role in immune evasion and receptor binding. While current treatments are limited by the virus's high mutation rate, anti‐adhesive strategies offer a promising avenue to inhibit early‐stage infection and reduce recovery time. Further experimental validation of these agents is necessary to develop effective antiviral therapeutics.

Background and Aims Cancer has grabbed the attention of scientists and medical professionals all over the world much more than any other disease. In the past few decades, the medical field has improved quite a lot but progress in the path to find a solution for cancer is very less. As the popularity of invasive technologies is diminishing in cancer treatment, scientists have come up withminimally invasive or non‐invasive alternatives, among which liquid biopsy, by far is the most suitable. Methods Liquid biopsy is used to analyse nucleic acids, subcellular components and circulating tumour cells in various biological fluids for diagnosis of cancer. It can also be used to know the efficacy of cancer drugs in a patient by analysing multiple samples. Outcomes Liquid biopsy is becoming standard of care as it allows biopsy of those samples in which solid tumour biopsies are not possible. The diversity of sampling procedures, such as collection of urine for urothelial carcinoma or bladder or prostate cancer and phlebotomy for other types of cancer, make liquid biopsy one of the best methods for diagnosis of cancer. Conclusion This review aims in discussing the several techniques used for the detection of cancer biomarkers and some clinical manifestations due to the changes in the biomarkers which are analysed by liquid biopsy. Liquid biopsy analyses the levels of biomarkers, which are of clinical significance present in bodily fluids like blood, serum, urine and saliva for diagnosis of cancer. The different biomarkers evaluated by liquid biopsy include cell‐free DNA, circulating tumour DNA, non‐coding RNA, proteins, exosomes and circulating tumour cells. The biomarkers are analysed using different sophisticated techniques such as microarray, next‐generation sequencing, microfluidics, karyotyping, advanced microscopy and fluorescence in situ hybridisation. The biomarkers provide valuable information regarding the stage of cancer and also enlightens medical professionals about the most suitable therapy.

Liquid biopsy represents a transformative approach in oncology, enabling noninvasive disease detection and monitoring through epigenetic signals in circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), nucleosomes, and noncoding RNAs. Tumor initiation is driven by epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, histone alterations, and dysregulated noncoding RNAs, which disrupt gene regulation, cell cycle control, DNA repair, and metastatic processes. This review systematically examines recent evidence on DNA methylation, histone marks (e.g., H3K27me3, H3K18ac), and noncoding RNAs (miRNAs, lncRNAs) as biomarkers for early cancer detection, prognosis, and therapeutic response. Particular focus is placed on aberrant DNA methylation (e.g., hypermethylation of CDKN2A, RASSF1A) and altered histone modifications (e.g., EZH2‐mediated silencing) as indicators of tumor heterogeneity and evolution. Stable and specific in biofluids, noncoding RNAs such as oncogenic miR‐21, tumor‐suppressive miR‐34a, and metastasis‐associated MALAT1/HOTAIR further enhance clinical applicability. Recent detection methods, including bisulfite sequencing, ChIP‐seq, and RNA‐seq, have advanced biomarker profiling, though challenges remain in standardization and low‐abundance detection. With over 12 active clinical studies validating their utility, integration of epigenetic markers with AI and multiomics holds promise for individualized, dynamically guided oncology care. Future innovations, such as chromatin accessibility analysis and cfDNA fragmentation profiling, may further refine diagnostic precision and therapeutic monitoring. Liquid biopsy is becoming prominent in cancer diagnostics and management due to its advantage of being noninvasive compared to traditional tissue biopsy. This technique processes blood sample to identify circulating biomarkers like cell‐free DNA, circulating tumor cell, and exosomal RNA. Of these, DNA methylation, histone modifications, and noncoding RNA have been revealed as significant biomarkers for use in cancer diagnosis at early stage, prognosis and prediction of therapeutic responsiveness. When liquid biopsy is combined with epigenetic characterization, tracking of tumor kinetics is possible in real‐time, opening up new possibilities for personalized therapeutic management of malignant disease in oncology. Such synergy will result in improved sensitivity and specificity and a deeper understanding of cancer in general.2

Background and Aims Cancer therapy is one of the most researched upon medical field in the world. Non invasive technologies such as liquid biopsy are gaining more importance in cancer therapy because of their manifold advantages over traditional invasive biopsy methods. Liquid biopsy is used to analyze nucleic acids such as ctDNA, cfDNA and RNA, cellular and subcellular components such as proteins, extracellular vesicles and circulating tumor cells in various biological fluids such as blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid and ascites fluid for diagnosis of cancer. Methods Liquid biopsy has a wide range of applications such as assessment of residual diseases and tumors which cannot be biopsied easily and prediction of CAR‐T response and response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. It can also be used to know the efficacy of cancer drugs in a patient by analyzing multiple samples. Liquid biopsy is becoming more popular as it allows biopsy of those samples in which solid tumor biopsies are challenging or impracticable. Techniques and Results To achieve comprehensive insight on the status of cancer in a patient, various cutting edge liquid biopsy techniques have been developed. Microfluidics and photonic technologies, along with PCR, next generation sequencing, advanced and innovative molecular and cell biology approaches and imaging techniques have expanded the domain of liquid biopsy and elevated the accuracy of liquid biopsy results. Conclusion This review discusses about the contributions of some widely used methods along with microfluidics and photonic technologies in detection of cancer biomarkers by liquid biopsy.

The rapid growth in the population, industrial developments, and climate change over the century have contributed to a significant rise in aquatic pollution leading to a scarcity of clean, reliable, and sustainable water sources and supply. Exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption of organic/inorganic compounds such as heavy metals, pharmaceuticals, dyes, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) discharged from municipalities, hospitals, textile industries, food, and agricultural sectors has caused adverse health outcomes in aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Owing to the high surface area, photocatalytic activity, antimicrobial, antifouling, optical, electronic, and magnetic properties, the application of nanotechnology offers unique opportunities in advanced wastewater management strategies over traditional approaches. Carbon nanomaterials and associated composites such as single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT), multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), and carbon nanotubes (CNT) buckypaper membranes have demonstrated efficiency in adsorption, photocatalytic activity, and filtration of contaminants and thus show immense potentiality in wastewater management. This review focuses on the application of CNTs in the sequestration of organic and inorganic contaminants from the aquatic environment. It also sheds light on the aquatic pollutant desorption processes, current safety regulations, and toxic responses associated with CNTs. Critical knowledge gaps involving CNT synthesis, surface modification processes, CNT-environment interactions, and risk assessments are further identified and discussed.

Recent advancements in neuroendocrinology challenge the long‐held belief that hormonal effects are confined to perivascular tissues and do not extend to the central nervous system (CNS). This paradigm shift, propelled by groundbreaking research, reveals that synthetic hormones, notably in anti‐inflammatory medications, significantly influence steroid psychosis, behavioural, and cognitive impairments, as well as neuropeptide functions. A seminal development in this field occurred in 1968 with McEven's proposal that rodent brains are responsive to glucocorticoids, fundamentally altering the understanding of how anxiety impacts CNS functionality and leading to the identification of glucocorticosteroids and mineralocorticoids as distinct corticotropic receptors. This paper focuses on the intricate roles of the neuroendocrine, immunological, and CNS in fostering stress resilience, underscored by recent animal model studies. These studies highlight active, compensatory, and passive strategies for resilience, supporting the concept that anxiety and depression are systemic disorders involving dysregulation across both peripheral and central systems. Resilience is conceptualized as a multifaceted process that enhances psychological adaptability to stress through adaptive mechanisms within the immunological system, brain, hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal axis, and ANS Axis. Furthermore, the paper explores oxidative stress, particularly its origin from the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mitochondria. The mitochondria's role extends beyond ATP production, encompassing lipid, heme, purine, and steroidogenesis synthesis. ROS‐induced damage to biomolecules can lead to significant mitochondrial dysfunction and cell apoptosis, emphasizing the critical nature of mitochondrial health in overall cellular function and stress resilience. This comprehensive synthesis of neuroendocrinological and cellular biological research offers new insights into the systemic complexity of stress‐related disorders and the imperative for multidisciplinary approaches in their study and treatment.