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Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) are Madagascar's largest carnivores, occupying much of the island's forested landscape. This study provides the first evaluation of fosas' conflict with humans, a problem for many small and medium sized carnivores worldwide. We examined fosas' predation of poultry, and the subsequent retaliatory killing. Over 1750 households were interviewed across four regions, encompassing Madagascar's major forest types (deciduous/rainforest) and protected area classifications (national park, reserve and unprotected forest). Predation by fosa was the third highest reported cause (15%) of poultry mortality, with little evidence that coops were effective in reducing predation. Predation of poultry was more prevalent in deciduous forests, and most common during the evenings of the dry season. Over half of all interviewees said they disliked fosas, with loss of poultry the most commonly stated reason. Respondents' that had suffered poultry depredation and those with lower educational attainment were more likely to dislike fosas. Interviewees that disliked fosas and those that were wealthier were most likely to report having killed a fosa. A minimum of thirty fosas was killed in retaliation by our respondents during the year before the interviews. Given that the fosa population is in decline, and most of Madagascar's forests are likely to be too small to support sustainable populations, these killings may be detrimental to vulnerable sub-populations. These results shed insight into the cultural perceptions and predation patterns of a medium sized carnivore, with relevance to worldwide human-wildlife conflict of often overlooked smaller carnivores. We suggest that educational programs, guard dogs, poultry disease vaccinations and robust coop construction may be effective for improving attitudes and reducing retaliatory killing.

The leopard’s ( Panthera pardus ) broad geographic range, remarkable adaptability, and secretive nature have contributed to a misconception that this species might not be severely threatened across its range. We find that not only are several subspecies and regional populations critically endangered but also the overall range loss is greater than the average for terrestrial large carnivores. To assess the leopard’s status, we compile 6,000 records at 2,500 locations from over 1,300 sources on its historic (post 1750) and current distribution. We map the species across Africa and Asia, delineating areas where the species is confirmed present, is possibly present, is possibly extinct or is almost certainly extinct. The leopard now occupies 25–37% of its historic range, but this obscures important differences between subspecies. Of the nine recognized subspecies, three ( P. p. pardus, fusca, and saxicolor ) account for 97% of the leopard’s extant range while another three ( P. p. orientalis, nimr, and japonensis ) have each lost as much as 98% of their historic range. Isolation, small patch sizes, and few remaining patches further threaten the six subspecies that each have less than 100,000 km 2 of extant range. Approximately 17% of extant leopard range is protected, although some endangered subspecies have far less. We found that while leopard research was increasing, research effort was primarily on the subspecies with the most remaining range whereas subspecies that are most in need of urgent attention were neglected.

Bushmeat consumption in Madagascar is increasingly acknowledged as one of the major threats to its wild vertebrates. Nevertheless, few studies have examined the drivers of the consumption of protected versus legally huntable wild species, or examined its variance across Madagascar’s protected and unprotected areas. This research provides a novel study of the consumption of protected, unprotected, and fish/eel species between forest types (deciduous and rainforest), as well as across a gradient of protected habitat (National Park, Reserve, Unprotected). Members of 1750 households were interviewed across four regions, including two national parks, two reserves, and two unprotected forests. Household demographic, socioeconomic, cultural, and geographic variables were explored as possible predictors of bushmeat consumption. We found that poorer households reported consuming greater quantities of protected species whereas wealthier households reported consuming greater quantities of fish and eel. Households located inside Andasibe-Mantadia National Park, Madagascar’s most visited protected area, reported consuming the greatest quantities of protected species. Interviewees’ most favoured meat was from livestock, and fish. The consumption pattern of wild species reflected interviewees’ stated preference for species that are either unlisted (e.g. tilapia fish) under Malagasy species protection laws, classified as pest (e.g. bushpig) and/or game species (e.g. tenrec). Most protected species (such as lemurs and carnivorans) were interviewees’ least favoured wild meats. Given the lack of cultural affinity, and low preference for the consumption of most protected species, our results suggest that improving accessibility to domestic meat is a promising strategy for reducing the consumption of protected species.

Anthropogenic habitat alteration and invasive species are threatening carnivores globally. Understanding the impact of these factors is critical for creating localized, effective conservation programmes. Madagascar's Eupleridae have been described as the least studied and most threatened group of carnivores. We investigated the effects of habitat degradation and the presence of people and exotic species on the modelled occupancy of the endemic fosa Cryptoprocta ferox, conducting camera-trap surveys in two western deciduous forests, Ankarafantsika National Park and Andranomena Special Reserve. Our results indicated no clear patterns between habitat degradation and fosa occupancy but a strong negative association between cats Felis sp. and fosas. Cat occupancy was negatively associated with birds and positively associated with contiguous forest and narrow trails. In contrast, dog Canis lupus familiaris occupancy was best predicted by wide trails, degraded forest and exotic civets. Our results suggest fosas are capable of traversing degraded landscapes and, in the short term, are resilient to contiguous forest disturbance. However, high occupancy of cats and dogs in the landscape leads to resource competition through prey exploitation and interference, increasing the risk of transmission of potentially fatal diseases. Management strategies for exotic carnivores should be considered, to reduce the widespread predation of endemic species and the transmission of disease.

Increasing evidence supports the idea that endemic avian and mammalian predators have profoundly impacted primate populations in Madagascar (Goodman, S. M. Predation on lemurs. In S. M. Goodman, & J. P. Benstead (Eds.), The natural history of Madagascar (pp. 1221–1228). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, (2003).). The role in regulating lemur populations of the 3 introduced mammalian carnivorans —small Indian civets ( Viverricula indica , Desmarest 1804), domestic dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris , Linnaeus 1758), and invasive wildcats ( Felis silvestris , Schreber 1775)— is less clear, but recent evidence suggests that the latter 2 are becoming important predators of diurnal lemurs. We report evidence for invasive wildcat predation on sifaka ( Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi ) in Parcel 1 at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar, including skeletal remains of apparent Propithecus sifaka victims, observations of wildcat predatory behavior, and behavioral responses of the lemurs in the presence of wildcats.

We define African savannahs as being those areas that receive between 300 and 1,500 mm of rain annually. This broad definition encompasses a variety of habitats. Thus defined, savannahs comprise 13.5 million km 2 and encompass most of the present range of the African lion ( Panthera leo ). Dense human populations and extensive conversion of land to human use preclude use by lions. Using high-resolution satellite imagery and human population density data we define lion areas, places that likely have resident lion populations. In 1960, 11.9 million km 2 of these savannahs had fewer than 25 people per km 2 . The comparable area shrank to 9.7 million km 2 by 2000. Areas of savannah Africa with few people have shrunk considerably in the last 50 years and human population projections suggest they will likely shrink significantly in the next 40. The current extent of free-ranging lion populations is 3.4 million km 2 or about 25 % of savannah area. Habitats across this area are fragmented; all available data indicate that between 32,000 and 35,000 free-ranging lions live in 67 lion areas. Although these numbers are similar to previous estimates, they are geographically more comprehensive. There is abundant evidence of widespread declines and local extinctions. Under the criteria we outline, ten lion areas qualify as lion strongholds: four in East Africa and six in Southern Africa. Approximately 24,000 lions are in strongholds, with an additional 4,000 in potential ones. However, over 6,000 lions are in populations of doubtful long-term viability. Lion populations in West and Central Africa are acutely threatened with many recent, local extinctions even in nominally protected areas.

The Vulnerable fosa Cryptoprocta ferox is the largest native carnivore in Madagascar, fulfilling a unique ecological niche in the island's remaining forests. Negative interactions with humans threaten the long-term viability of most remaining fosa populations across Madagascar. Threats to the fosa include habitat loss and persecution by humans resulting from perceived predation on domestic animals. We used GPS collars to record space use and activity patterns of five fosas in Ankarafantsika National Park, Madagascar, during the dry seasons of 2016 and 2017. The results, with up to 2,110 recorded locations per individual, indicated fosas’ home ranges and movements were not limited to the forest, and all collared individuals used networks of habitat patches and corridors to navigate deforested areas. The fosas studied in Ankarafantsika National Park had significantly larger home ranges than those reported in previous studies in other protected areas. They were rarely found within village boundaries and appeared to avoid areas of human habitation, suggesting that during the study period livestock was not a significant component of the fosas’ diet in this Park. Our results suggest that fosas have some flexibility that enables them to adapt to living near deforested and human-dominated areas by altering their space-use patterns, but they are compensating by increasing their home range size.

1. In dryland ecosystems, mobility is essential for both wildlife and people to access unpredictable and spatially heterogeneous resources, particularly in the face of climate change. Fences can prevent connectivity vital for this mobility. 2. There are recent calls for large-scale barrier fencing interventions to address human-wildlife conflict and illegal resource extraction. Fencing has costs and benefits to people and wildlife. However, the evidence available for facilitating sound decision-making for fencing initiatives is limited, particularly for drylands. 3. We identify six research areas that are key to informing evaluations of fencing initiatives: economics, edge permeability, reserve design, connectivity, ecosystem services and communities. 4. Policy implications. Implementing this research agenda to evaluate fencing interventions in dryland ecosystems will enable better management and policy decisions. The United Nations Conventions on Migratory Species (CMS) and to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) are appropriate international agreements for moving this agenda forward and leading the development of policies and guidelines on fencing in drylands.