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This article analyses the status and trends of the European Union (EU) residential energy consumption in light of the energy consumption targets set by the EU 2020 and 2030 energy and climate strategies. It assesses the energy efficiency progress from 2000 to 2016, using the official Eurostat data. In 2016, the residential energy consumption amounted to 25.71% of the EU’s final energy consumption, representing the second largest consuming sector after transport. Consumption-related data are discussed together with data on some main energy efficiency policies and energy consumption determinants, such as economic and population growth, weather conditions, and household and building characteristics. Indicators are identified to show the impact of specific determinants on energy consumption and a new indicator is proposed, drawing a closer link between energy trends and policy and technological changes in the sector. The analysis of these determinants highlights the complex dynamics behind the demand of energy in the residential sector. Decomposition analysis is carried out using the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index technique to provide a more complete picture of the impact of various determinants (population, wealth, intensity, and weather) on the latest EU-28 residential energy consumption trends. The article provides a better understanding of the EU residential energy consumption, its drivers, the impact of current policies, and recommendations on future policies.

Following the adoption of the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) in 2012, the Member States of the European Union implemented various policies and measures to meet the Directive’s requirements, including national energy efficiency targets for 2020. The progress made at national level is tracked through the Annual Reports provided by Member States to the Commission in accordance with the EED Article 24. To provide valuable insights of the actions taken by Member States towards increasing energy efficiency in various sectors of their economies, this paper reviews the assessment of the Annual Reports (AR) submitted since 2013—the year in which the first reports were due—until the latest Annual Reports of 2018. Notably, the implementation status of key EED provisions such as Article 5 on the exemplary role of public bodies’ buildings and Article 7 on Energy Efficiency Obligation Schemes (EEOS) is discussed, providing a historical view of the progress made from the inception of the various actions until now. The need of more efforts, in particular with the Article 5 implementation, is identified. The national contributions towards the EU 2020 target are also discussed, including an analysis of the latest energy consumption trends and reasons for which energy consumption remained stable or increased, as given by Member States in their reports. Lessons learned from the EED experience so far are drawn that provide valuable input for the successful implementation of the future requirements under the new Energy Union Governance.

Energy efficiency in buildings has a central role to play in reaching the climate neutrality goal set by the European Green Deal. With detailed knowledge of their building stock and the profile of their occupants, regional and local authorities can forge an important link between financiers, industry professionals and homeowners to ensure the successful deployment of financial schemes that support the uptake of energy efficiency upgrades. This paper provides a first assessment of the role of regional and local authorities by reviewing relevant initiatives and programmes on energy efficiency. Based on a questionnaire completed for more than 150 schemes, it explores how European municipalities and regions stimulate energy upgrades in residential, commercial and public buildings through public financial support. It is found that 60% of the examined schemes are offered in the form of grants and subsidies, and 45% of them targeted residential upgrades. The use of EU cohesion policy funds in supporting regional schemes, and promotion of energy efficiency investments at local level through the European Covenant of Mayors initiative are also explored. In spite of possible resource limitations at this level of governance, regional and local authorities are in a good position to utilise European structural or research funds to develop financial schemes, as standalone programmes or blended with national ones, thus providing additional support and funds for deep renovations. The results suggest that energy efficiency in buildings has become an important part of local and regional strategies in several European countries, but could be further enhanced.

Despite various government policies promoting energy efficiency in buildings over the last 15 years, Cyprus is still associated with a large untapped energy efficiency potential in this sector. The impact of different policy scenarios on future energy needs of the building sector in Cyprus is explored by first reviewing the current status of the building stock in Cyprus and existing national landscape of energy efficiency policies. Various new policies are then proposed to complement the existing framework and help exploit further the potential. Using the Invert/EE-Lab model, three policy scenarios to 2050 are assessed with the aim to estimate the energy efficiency potential of the Cypriot building sector and identify policy solutions to harness this potential. The energy consumed for heating, cooling, hot water and lighting in the entire Cypriot building stock is expected to drop by up to 16% in 2050 compared to the baseline scenario. Under the most ambitious scenario, nearly 60% of the building stock in 2050 will be energy efficient, consuming less than half of the energy used by the average building stock in 2012. Taking into account the modelling results, recommendations on how to improve the financial landscape in buildings until 2050 are presented.

The research focuses on the development of mathematical models for describing transient flows within and between connected fluid-filled vessels. The fluid mechanics of connected vessels is of broad interest and numerous examples may be found in industry, the built environment and the laboratory. This work focuses primarily on the interaction between three connecting vessels and considers two main areas of application: (i) the so-called `double-tank' method, as used by experimental fluid dynamicists to stratify environments, and (ii) the passive transient ventilation of multi-storey buildings. An analytical description of the double-tank method, a classic example of liquid exchanges under controlled (constant) flow rates between horizontally connected vessels, was developed. Subsequently, a new technique was proposed, modelled and tested which enabled a broader range of density stratifications to be set up and without the use of pumps. This technique enabled liquids to drain freely under gravity from one vessel to another - the rates of liquid transfer no longer constant but functions of the instantaneous liquid depths. Modelling the fluid mechanics of multi-storey building ventilation added additional tiers of complexity as air and heat exchanged between rooms drive turbulent mixing and there is complex feedback between the individual rooms. Three vessels were again considered, two storeys connected to a common atrium, and the development of the buoyancy- driven flow following the activation of heat sources was investigated. A description of the transient response of the ventilation in an atrium building leading to a steady state, as typically achieved during the course of a day, was developed. Wind pressure variations and solar heat gains in the atrium were also incorporated. The effect of atria geometry on the ventilation of adjoining rooms was established and shown to be analogous to either an `assisting' or an `opposing' wind. When `opposing', the ventilation flow rate reduced. For a strongly `opposing' atrium, a reversal in the direction of flow through the storey occurred, revealing the possibility of multiple flow regimes during the transients - the dynamics of which were explored. Finally, the building ventilation model was generalised to n storeys (n > 2) connecting to a common atrium. Controversially, the implications of the predictions indicate that current atrium designs do not guarantee enhanced flow as is generally accepted.

It has been suggested that endocannabinoid mechanisms are involved in the control of ethanol consumption. The aims of the present study were (1) to evaluate the role of the endocannabinoid system in the control of operant ethanol self-administration and in the reinstatement of ethanol seeking, when induced by stress or conditioned stimuli and (2) to offer new insights on the specificity of such a role. Rats were administered intraperitoneally with the selective cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist, SR-141716A, 30 min before operant self-administration or reinstatement sessions. Two schedules of reinforcement, the fixed-ratio 1 (FR1) and the progressive ratio (PR), were used to study 10% (w/v) alcohol and 5.0% sucrose self-administration. NaCl (2% w/v) intake in sodium-depleted rats was studied only under the FR1 program. Treatment with SR-141716A (0.3-3.0 mg/kg) significantly attenuated FR1 alcohol self-administration and lowered the break point for ethanol under PR. SR-141716A also markedly inhibited the reinstatement of alcohol seeking elicited by presentation of cues predictive of drug availability. Conversely, the cannabinoid antagonist did not prevent the reinstatement of alcohol seeking induced by foot-shock stress. Lever pressing for sucrose under FR1 and PR schedules was also significantly decreased by SR-141716A treatment, whereas the drug modestly and only at the highest dose decreased 2% NaCl self-administration. Results emphasize that endocannabinoid mechanisms play a major role in the control of ethanol self-administration and in the reinstatement of conditioned ethanol seeking. However, these effects extend to the control of operant behaviours motivated by natural rewards (i.e. sucrose). On the other hand, SR-141716A only weakly reduces NaCl self-administration in sodium-depleted rats, in which salt intake is largely controlled by homeostatic mechanisms. Overall, these observations demonstrate that the inhibition of operant behaviour following blockade of CB1 receptors by SR-141716A is linked to a reduction of reward-related responding and is not related to drug-induced motor deficits.

Rationale: It has been suggested that endocannabinoid mechanisms are involved in the control of ethanol consumption. Objectives: The aims of the present study were (1) to evaluate the role of the endocannabinoid system in the control of operant ethanol self-administration and in the reinstatement of ethanol seeking, when induced by stress or conditioned stimuli and (2) to offer new insights on the specificity of such a role. Methods: Rats were administered intraperitoneally with the selective cannabinoid CB sub(1) receptor antagonist, SR-141716A, 30 min before operant self-administration or reinstatement sessions. Two schedules of reinforcement, the fixed-ratio 1 (FR1) and the progressive ratio (PR), were used to study 10% (w/v) alcohol and 5.0% sucrose self-administration. NaCl (2% w/v) intake in sodium-depleted rats was studied only under the FR1 program. Results: Treatment with SR-141716A (0.3-3.0 mg/kg) significantly attenuated FR1 alcohol self-administration and lowered the break point for ethanol under PR. SR-141716A also markedly inhibited the reinstatement of alcohol seeking elicited by presentation of cues predictive of drug availability. Conversely, the cannabinoid antagonist did not prevent the reinstatement of alcohol seeking induced by foot-shock stress. Lever pressing for sucrose under FR1 and PR schedules was also significantly decreased by SR-141716A treatment, whereas the drug modestly and only at the highest dose decreased 2% NaCl self-administration. Conclusions: Results emphasize that endocannabinoid mechanisms play a major role in the control of ethanol self-administration and in the reinstatement of conditioned ethanol seeking. However, these effects extend to the control of operant behaviours motivated by natural rewards (i.e. sucrose). On the other hand, SR-141716A only weakly reduces NaCl self-administration in sodium-depleted rats, in which salt intake is largely controlled by homeostatic mechanisms. Overall, these observations demonstrate that the inhibition of operant behaviour following blockade of CB sub(1) receptors by SR-141716A is linked to a reduction of reward-related responding and is not related to drug-induced motor deficits.