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The interaction of the interstellar and solar winds is complex, as revealed by differences in intensities and anisotropies of low-energy ions (>0.5 MeV per nucleon) originating inside the heliosphere and those of higher-energy Galactic cosmic rays (>70 MeV per nucleon) originating outside, in the Milky Way. On 5 November 2018, Voyager 2 observed a sharp decrease in the intensity of low-energy ions and a simultaneous increase in the intensity of cosmic rays, indicating that Voyager 2 had crossed the heliopause at 119 au and entered interstellar space about six years after Voyager 1. Unlike Voyager 1, which found that two interstellar flux tubes had invaded the heliosheath and served as precursors to the heliopause, Voyager 2 found no similar precursors. However, just beyond the heliopause Voyager 2 discovered a boundary layer, in which low-energy particles streamed outward along the magnetic field and cosmic ray intensities were only 90% of those further out.As it crossed the heliopause, Voyager 2 observed a sharp decrease in measurements of the low-energy ions that originate within the heliosphere, and an increase in the cosmic rays from the Milky Way, without any of the precursor flux tubes that Voyager 1 experienced. Outside the heliopause, a boundary layer exists.

We review recent observations and modeling developments on the subject of galactic cosmic rays through the heliosphere and in the Very Local Interstellar Medium, emphasizing knowledge that has accumulated over the past decade. We begin by highlighting key measurements of cosmic-ray spectra by Voyager, PAMELA, and AMS and discuss advances in global models of solar modulation. Next, we survey recent works related to large-scale, long-term spatial and temporal variations of cosmic rays in different regimes of the solar wind. Then we highlight new discoveries from beyond the heliopause and link these to the short-term evolution of transients caused by solar activity. Lastly, we visit new results that yield interesting insights from a broader astrophysical perspective.

Leaving the heliosphere: Voyager 2 reports back On 30 August 2007 Voyager 2 began to cross the termination shock, a boundary produced by the inter-action of the Sun with the rest of the Galaxy, where the supersonic solar wind abruptly slows as it presses outward against the surrounding interstellar matter. Five Letters in this issue present the data that the probe sent back. The Voyager 2 crossings occurred about 1.5 billion kilometres closer to the Sun than those of Voyager 1, illustrating the asymmetry of the heliosphere. The results from the plasma experiment, low-energy particle, cosmic ray, magnetic field and plasma-wave detectors reveal a complex and dynamic shock, reforming itself in hours rather than days. The cover graphic of Voayer 2 on the brink of entering interstellar space is by Henry Kline of JPL. It may be decades before another probe crosses the termination shock but remote observations can now bridge the gap — as shown by Wang et al . who report measurements of energetic neutral atoms in the heliosheath from the STEREO A and B spacecraft that complement the Voyager in situ observations made at the same time. In News & Views, J R Jokipii puts the Voyager findings into context. For more on the on Voyager odyssey, see page 24, and the Author page, and go to the movie on http://www.nature.com/nature/videoarchive/voyager . The supersonic (with respect to the interstellar medium) solar wind creates a heliospheric bubble around the Sun. A termination shock occurs where the wind abruptly slows and forms the heliosheath. Voyager 2 crossed the termination shock at 83.7 au in the southern hemisphere. The intensity of 4–5 MeV protons accelerated by the shock near Voyager 2 was three times that observed concurrently by Voyager 1, indicating differences in the shock at the two locations. Voyager 2 crossed the solar wind termination shock at 83.7  au in the southern hemisphere, ∼10  au closer to the Sun than found by Voyager 1 in the north 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . This asymmetry could indicate an asymmetric pressure from an interstellar magnetic field 5 , 6 , from transient-induced shock motion 7 , or from the solar wind dynamic pressure. Here we report that the intensity of 4–5 MeV protons accelerated by the shock near Voyager 2 was three times that observed concurrently by Voyager 1, indicating differences in the shock at the two locations. (Companion papers report on the plasma 8 , magnetic field 9 , plasma-wave 10 and lower energy particle 11 observations at the shock.) Voyager 2 did not find the source of anomalous cosmic rays at the shock, suggesting that the source is elsewhere on the shock 12 , 13 , 14 or in the heliosheath 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 . The small intensity gradient of Galactic cosmic ray helium indicates that either the gradient is further out in the heliosheath 20 or the local interstellar Galactic cosmic ray intensity is lower than expected 21 .

This study advances our understanding of Treponema pallidum , the syphilis-causing pathogen, through the reconstruction of iTP251, the first genome-scale metabolic model for this organism, and its enzyme-constrained version, ec-iTP251. The work addresses the challenges of studying T. pallidum , an extracellular, host-adapted pathogen, due to its strict dependence on host-derived nutrients and challenges in in vitro cultivation. Validated with strong agreement to proteomics data, the model demonstrates high predictive reliability. Key insights include unique metabolic adaptations such as lactate uptake for ATP production and alternative redox-balancing mechanisms. These findings provide a robust framework for future studies aimed at unraveling the pathogen's survival strategies and identifying potential metabolic vulnerabilities.

This paper discusses plasma characteristics in the heliosheath region before the heliopause (HP), at the HP, and in the very local interstellar medium (VLISM). The Voyager 2 (V2) HP was a sharp boundary where the radial plasma currents went to background levels. The radial flow speeds derived from 53-85 keV (V1) and 28-43 keV (V2) ion data decreased about 2 years (8 AU) before the HP at V1 and V2. A speed decrease was not observed by the V2 plasma instrument until 160 days (1.5 AU) before the HP crossing when V2 entered the plasma boundary layer where the plasma density and 28-43 keV ion intensity increased. We determine the HP orientation based on the plasma flow and magnetic field data and show these observations are consistent with models predicting a blunt HP. Variations are observed in the currents observed in the VLISM; roll data from this region clearly show the plasma instrument observes the interstellar plasma and may be consistent with larger than expected VLISM temperatures near the HP.

This paper provides the latest data from Voyager 2 on plasma characteristics in the heliosheath including the observations of pressure waves in the plasma and particle data. Models and observations show that solar transients drive pressure waves through the heliosphere. Pressure pulses that could drive heliosheath waves are observed near the previous solar maximum upstream of the termination shock. We show that the most recent data is consistent with the presence of pressure waves and compare the heliosheath waves with the pressure increases in the heliosheath. The magnetic field is better correlated with density and galactic cosmic ray intensities in the supersonic solar wind than in the heliosheath. The galactic cosmic rays are correlated with the plasma and particles with a ∼30-day lag in both the supersonic wind and heliosheath.

The spacecraft Voyager 1 is at a distance greater than 85  au from the Sun, in the vicinity of the termination shock that marks the abrupt slowing of the supersonic solar wind and the beginning of the extended and unexplored distant heliosphere 1 , 2 . This shock is expected to accelerate ‘anomalous cosmic rays’ 3 , as well as to re-accelerate Galactic cosmic rays 5 and low-energy particles from the inner Solar System 4 . Here we report a significant increase in the numbers of energetic ions and electrons that persisted for seven months beginning in mid-2002. This increase differs from any previously observed in that there was a simultaneous increase in Galactic cosmic ray ions and electrons, anomalous cosmic rays and low-energy ions. The low-intensity level and spectral energy distribution of the anomalous cosmic rays, however, indicates that Voyager 1 still has not reached the termination shock. Rather, the observed increase is an expected precursor event. We argue that the radial anisotropy of the cosmic rays is expected to be small in the foreshock region, as is observed.

Texas has one of the largest Jewish populations in the South and West, comprising an often-overlooked vestige of the Diaspora. The Chosen Folks brings this rich aspect of the past to light, going beyond single biographies and photographic histories to explore the full evolution of the Jewish experience in Texas. Drawing on previously unpublished archival materials and synthesizing earlier research, Bryan Edward Stone begins with the crypto-Jews who fled the Spanish Inquisition in the late sixteenth century and then discusses the unique Texas-Jewish communities that flourished far from the acknowledged centers of Jewish history and culture. The effects of this peripheral identity are explored in depth, from the days when geographic distance created physical divides to the redefinitions of \"frontier\" that marked the twentieth century. The rise of the Ku Klux Klan, the creation of Israel in the wake of the Holocaust, and the civil rights movement are covered as well, raising provocative questions about the attributes that enabled Texas Jews to forge a distinctive identity on the national and world stage. Brimming with memorable narratives, The Chosen Folks brings to life a cast of vibrant pioneers.

Abstract The popularity of trusts has been on a long downward trend in the UK. According to the latest data published by HMRC in September 2019, the total number of trusts and estates registered for tax in the UK has fallen by almost one third since April 2006 to 150,000 and the number of interest in possession trusts has almost halved over the same period to 49,000. The decline is explored in this article and how it could be halted by adopting US-style “living trusts”.