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Background Police‐initiated pedestrian stops have been one of the most widely used crime prevention tactics in modern policing. Proponents have long considered police stops to be an indispensable component of crime prevention efforts, with many holding them responsible for the significant reductions in violent crime observed across major US cities in recent decades. Critics, however, have taken issue with the overuse of pedestrian stops, linking them to worsening mental and physical health, attitudes toward the police, and elevated delinquent behavior for individuals directly subject to them. To date, there has been no systematic review or meta‐analysis on the effects of these interventions on crime and individual‐level outcomes. Objectives To synthesize the existing evaluation research regarding the impact of police‐initiated pedestrian stops on crime and disorder, mental and physical health, individual attitudes toward the police, self‐reported crime/delinquency, violence in police‐citizen encounters, and police misbehavior. Search Methods We used the Global Policing Database, a repository of all experimental and quasi‐experimental evaluations of policing interventions conducted since 1950, to search for published and unpublished evaluations of pedestrian stop interventions through December of 2019. This overarching search was supplemented by additional searches of academic databases, gray literature sources, and correspondence with subject‐matter experts to capture eligible studies through December 2021. Selection Criteria Eligibility was limited to studies that included a treatment group of people or places experiencing pedestrian stops and a control group of people or places not experiencing pedestrian stops (or experiencing a lower dosage of pedestrian stops). Studies were required to use an experimental or quasi‐experimental design and evaluate the intervention using an outcome of area‐level crime and disorder, mental or physical health, individual or community‐level attitudes toward the police, or self‐reported crime/delinquency. Data Collection and Analysis We adopted standard methodological procedures expected by the Campbell Collaboration. Eligible studies were grouped by conceptually similar outcomes and then analyzed separately using random effects models with restricted maximum likelihood estimation. Treatment effects were represented using relative incident rate ratios, odds ratios, and Hedges' g effect sizes, depending on the unit of analysis and outcome measure. We also conducted sensitivity analyses for several outcome measures using robust variance estimation, with standard errors clustered by each unique study/sample. Risk of bias was assessed using items adapted from the Cochrane randomized and non‐randomized risk of bias tools. Results Our systematic search strategies identified 40 eligible studies corresponding to 58 effect sizes across six outcome groupings, representing 90,904 people and 20,876 places. Police‐initiated pedestrian stop interventions were associated with a statistically significant 13% (95% confidence interval [CI]: −16%, −9%, p < 0.001) reduction in crime for treatment areas relative to control areas. These interventions also led to a diffusion of crime control benefits, with a statistically significant 7% (95% CI: −9%, −4%, p < 0.001) reduction in crime for treatment displacement areas relative to control areas. However, pedestrian stops were also associated with a broad range of negative individual‐level effects. Individuals experiencing police stops were associated with a statistically significant 46% (95% CI: 24%, 72%, p < 0.001) increase in the odds of a mental health issue and a 36% (95% CI: 14%, 62%, p < 0.001) increase in the odds of a physical health issue, relative to control. Individuals experiencing police stops also reported significantly more negative attitudes toward the police (g = −0.38, 95% CI: −0.59, −0.17, p < 0.001) and significantly higher levels of self‐reported crime/delinquency (g = 0.30, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.48, p < 0.001), equating to changes of 18.6% and 15%, respectively. No eligible studies were identified measuring violence in police‐citizen encounters or officer misbehavior. While eligible studies were often considered to be at moderate to high risk of bias toward control groups, no significant differences based on methodological rigor were observed. Moderator analyses also indicated that the negative individual‐level effects of pedestrian stops may be more pronounced for youth, and that significant differences in effect sizes may exist between US and European studies. However, these moderator analyses were limited by a small number of studies in each comparison, and we were unable to compare the effects of police stops across racial groupings. Authors' Conclusions While our findings point to favorable effects of pedestrian stop interventions on place‐based crime and displacement outcomes, evidence of negative individual‐level effects makes it difficult to recommend the use of these tactics over alternative policing interventions. Recent systematic reviews of hot spots policing and problem‐oriented policing approaches indicate a more robust evidence‐base and generally larger crime reduction effects than those presented here, often without the associated backfire effects on individual health, attitudes, and behavior. Future research should examine whether police agencies can mitigate the negative effects of pedestrian stops through a focus on officer behavior during these encounters.

PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY Body-worn cameras (BWCs) do not have clear or consistent effects on most officer or citizen behaviors, but different practices need further evaluation Law enforcement agencies have rapidly adopted BWCs in the last decade with the hope that they might improve police conduct, accountability, and transparency, especially regarding use of force. Studies eligible for this review included those that examined the use of BWCs by law enforcement officers using either randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-experimental research designs, and that measured police or citizen behaviors, rather than their perceptions. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY/ABSTRACT Background In the past decade, many communities have experienced high-profile police-involved shootings and deaths in custody, as well as citizen protests and demands for greater police accountability and transparency. Results Findings from this Campbell systematic review indicate that BWCs can reduce the number of citizen complaints against police officers (% change = −16.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] [−30.0 to −0.7]), although it remains unclear whether this finding signals an improvement in the quality of police–citizen interactions or a change in reporting.

Background Multiagency responses to reduce radicalisation often involve collaborations between police, government, nongovernment, business and/or community organisations. The complexities of radicalisation suggest it is impossible for any single agency to address the problem alone. Police‐involved multiagency partnerships may disrupt pathways from radicalisation to violence by addressing multiple risk factors in a coordinated manner. Objectives 1. Synthesise evidence on the effectiveness of police‐involved multiagency interventions on radicalisation or multiagency collaboration 2. Qualitatively synthesise information about how the intervention works (mechanisms), intervention context (moderators), implementation factors and economic considerations. Search Methods Terrorism‐related terms were used to search the Global Policing Database, terrorism/counterterrorism websites and repositories, and relevant journals for published and unpublished evaluations conducted 2002–2018. The search was conducted November 2019. Expert consultation, reference harvesting and forward citation searching was conducted November 2020. Selection Criteria Eligible studies needed to report an intervention where police partnered with at least one other agency and explicitly aimed to address terrorism, violent extremism or radicalisation. Objective 1 eligible outcomes included violent extremism, radicalisation and/or terrorism, and multiagency collaboration. Only impact evaluations using experimental or robust quasi‐experimental designs were eligible. Objective 2 placed no limits on outcomes. Studies needed to report an empirical assessment of an eligible intervention and provide data on mechanisms, moderators, implementation or economic considerations. Data Collection and Analysis The search identified 7384 records. Systematic screening identified 181 studies, of which five were eligible for Objective 1 and 26 for Objective 2. Effectiveness studies could not be meta‐analysed, so were summarised and effect size data reported. Studies for Objective 2 were narratively synthesised by mechanisms, moderators, implementation, and economic considerations. Risk of bias was assessed using ROBINS‐I, EPHPP, EMMIE and CASP checklists. Results One study examined the impact on vulnerability to radicalisation, using a quasi‐experimental matched comparison group design and surveys of volunteers (n = 191). Effects were small to medium and, aside from one item, favoured the intervention. Four studies examined the impact on the nature and quality of multiagency collaboration, using regression models and surveys of practitioners. Interventions included: alignment with national counterterrorism guidelines (n = 272); number of counterterrorism partnerships (n = 294); influence of, or receipt of, homeland security grants (n = 350, n = 208). Study findings were mixed. Of the 181 studies that examined mechanisms, moderators, implementation, and economic considerations, only 26 studies rigorously examined mechanisms (k = 1), moderators (k = 1), implementation factors (k = 21) or economic factors (k = 4). All included studies contained high risk of bias and/or methodological issues, substantially reducing confidence in the findings. Authors' Conclusions A limited number of effectiveness studies were identified, and none evaluated the impact on at‐risk or radicalised individuals. More investment needs to be made in robust evaluation across a broader range of interventions. Qualitative synthesis suggests that collaboration may be enhanced when partners take time to build trust and shared goals, staff are not overburdened with administration, there are strong privacy provisions for intelligence sharing, and there is ongoing support and training.

Background Police can play a role in tackling violent extremism through disrupting terrorist plots and by working with communities to identify individuals at risk of radicalisation. Police programmes to tackle violent extremism can involve a range of approaches and partnerships. One approach includes efforts to improve community connectedness by working to address social isolation, belonging, economic opportunities and norms and values that may lead people to endorse or support violent extremist causes and groups. The assumption is that the risk of an individual being radicalised in the community can be reduced when police work in pothe international legal ordersitive ways with community members and groups to mobilise and support activities that help generate a sense of belonging and trust. Police programmes that build a sense of belonging and trust may help ensure individuals are not influenced by activities that violent extremists use to attract support for their cause. Objectives The review aimed to systematically examine whether or not police programmes that seek to promote community connectedness are effective in reducing violent extremist behaviours, attitudes and beliefs. The review also sought to identify whether effectiveness varied by the intervention type and location. Search Methods Using terrorism‐related terms, we searched the Global Policing Database to identify eligible published and unpublished evaluations between January 2002 and December 2018. We supplemented this with comprehensive searches of relevant terrorism and counter‐terrorism websites and research repositories, reference harvesting of eligible and topic‐relevant studies, forward citation searches of eligible studies, hand‐searches of leading journals and consultations with experts. Selection Criteria Eligible studies needed to include an initiative that involved the police, either through police initiation, development, leadership or where the police were receivers of the programme (such as a training programme) or where the police delivered or implemented the intervention. The initiative also needed to be some kind of a strategy, technique, approach, activity, campaign, training, programme, directive or funding/organisational change that involved police in some way to promote community connectedness. Community connectedness was defined as being community consultation, partnership or collaboration with citizens and/or organisational entities. Eligible outcomes included violent extremism, along with radicalisation and disengagement which are considered to be attitudinal and belief‐based components of violent extremism. These outcomes could be measured via self‐report instruments, interviews, observations and/or official data. To be included, studies could utilise individuals, micro‐ or macroplaces as the participants. Finally, studies needed to provide a quantitative impact evaluation that utilised a randomised or quasi‐experimental design with a comparison group that either did not receive the intervention, or that received “business‐as‐usual” policing, no intervention or an alternative intervention. Data Collection and Analysis The systematic search identified 2,273 records (after duplicate removal). After systematic screening across two stages (title/ and full‐text), just one study (reported in two documents) met the review eligibility criteria. Standardised mean differences (SMD) were used to estimate intervention effects for this single study and risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias in Non‐Randomised Studies‐Interventions tool (ROBINS‐I). Results The single eligible study (n = 191) was a quasi‐experimental evaluation of the Muslim‐led intervention—World Organisation for Resource Development Education (WORDE)—conducted in the United States in 2015. The intervention comprised three components: community education, enhancing agency networks and multicultural volunteerism activities. Self‐report data were collected from youth and adults who were civically engaged, sensitised to issues of violent extremism and who had existing cooperative relationships with law enforcement and social services. The comparison group comprised matched participants who had not engaged with the WORDE programme. The outcomes most closely aligned with conceptual definitions of deradicalization, specifically levels of acceptance and/or engagement with cultural and religious differences or pluralistic views and modification of group or personal identity. Based on single survey items, the SMD ranged from small to medium in favour of the treatment group aside from one item which favoured the comparison group (“I make friends with people from other races”, SMD = −0.51, 95% CI: −0.82, −0.19). However, of the nine SMDs calculated, six had confidence intervals including zero. These effects should be interpreted with caution due to the study's overall serious risk of bias. It is important to note that it is not explicitly clear whether the evaluation participants in the treatment group were all directly exposed to the two intervention components that involved police. Hence, these evaluation outcomes may not be direct measures of how effect police were at countering violent extremism by promoting community connectiveness. Conclusions The aim of this systematic review was to examine whether or not police programmes that seek to promote community connectedness are effective in reducing violent extremist behaviours, attitudes and beliefs. There is insufficient evidence available to ascertain whether such interventions achieve these outcomes. This finding is the result of the fact that interventions that have been evaluated tend to be characterised by evaluation designs that do not adopt experimental or quasi‐experimental approaches or use outcomes that are outside of scope for this review. While the volume of studies identified provide support for the assertion that police can play a role in tackling violent extremism by participating in, and implementing, programmes that promote community connectedness, it is unclear at this time if such approaches work in reducing violent extremism. Whilst we conclude that investment needs to be made in more robust methods of evaluation to test for programme effectiveness, we acknowledge that conducting evaluation and research in the area of counter‐terrorism/violent extremism is challenging.

This is the protocol for a Campbell systematic review. The objectives are as follows. The primary aim of this mixed methods review is to synthesise the available evidence regarding the effectiveness of restorative justice interventions (RJIs) for reducing offending and reoffending outcomes in children and young people. We are also particularly interested in the impact of RJIs on children and young peoples' violent offending and violent reoffending. A second aim of the review is to examine whether the magnitude of effectiveness of RJIs may be influenced by study characteristics such as the population (e.g., age, ethnicity, or sex), the form of intervention (e.g., face‐to‐face mediation compared to family group conferencing), the place of delivery of the intervention (e.g., in independent office, in court), implementation (e.g., trained facilitators, dose, fidelity) and methodology (e.g., randomised controlled trial). The third aim of the review is to synthesise the qualitative evidence about RJ to develop a better contextual understanding of how these programmes may work and to elucidate factors that might increase the efficacy and implementation of RJ interventions. The specific research questions this systematic review aims to address are: (1) Do RJ interventions reduce children and young people's involvement in offending or reoffending relative to a comparison group? [RQ1]. (2) Is there variation in the impact of different RJ approaches on young people's involvement in offending or reoffending? [RQ2]. (3) Is there variation in the impact of RJIs on children and young people's offending or reoffending depending on the characteristics of the participants taking part in the RJI (e.g., sex, age, ethnicity)? [RQ3]. (4) What characteristics of RJIs, influence the effectiveness of RJIs for children and young people's offending and reoffending? [RQ4]. (5) What are the most notable barriers and facilitators, as reported by participants (e.g., the victims, children/young people, or mediators who have taken part in an evaluation of an RJI, or those children or young people who were meant to take part in an evaluation but ultimately did not), to the implementation of RJIs to reduce later offending or reoffending? [RQ5].

This is the protocol for a Campbell systematic review. The objectives are as follows. The proposed systematic review is an update to, and extension of, Lipsey et al. (2007). As such we build on their previous aims to: (i) Assess and synthesise the overall impact of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) on offender recidivism; (ii) Examine possible sources of variability in the effectiveness of CBT. Data permitting, we will examine if the effectiveness of CBT varies by: (a) Characteristics of the CBT intervention (e.g., cognitive restructuring vs. cognitive skills training, group v. individual implementation; and/or custodial v. community setting, and/or), (b) Characteristics of the population (e.g., juveniles vs. adult offenders), (c) Implementation factors (e.g., implementing practitioner, use of structured/manualised approaches, delivery mode, and/or programme duration or intensity), (d) Evaluation methods (e.g., randomised vs. non‐randomised research designs); (iv) Determine whether there is a decline in the effect of CBT on recidivism over time; and (v) Investigate whether there is an interaction between implementation factors and time in terms of the effect on recidivism.

Background Parental substance misuse is a pervasive risk factor for a range of detrimental outcomes for children across the life course. While a variety of interventions have been developed for this population, the existing evidence‐base requires consolidation and consideration of the comparative effectiveness of different interventions to facilitate evidence‐informed decisions between different intervention approaches. Objectives This review aimed to use network meta‐analysis to synthesise the comparative effectiveness of psychosocial, legal, and pharmacological interventions for improving outcomes for children with substance misusing parents. Network meta‐analysis was not possible; however, we synthesised the effects of a broad range of interventions on child psychosocial outcomes. Another aim was to examine potential moderators of the effects, yet this was also not possible due to data limitations. A secondary objective was to qualitatively synthesise economic, treatment completion, and treatment acceptability information for included studies. Search Methods Searches were performed in November 2020 and again in April 2021. Encompassing multiple disciplines, we searched 34 databases, 58 grey literature repositories, and 10 trial registers. Supplementary hand searches were conducted on 11 journals, along with harvesting the references of all included studies and existing reviews, and forward citation searching each report of all included studies. Study authors were contacted to obtain missing data. Selection Criteria Eligible studies included randomised and quasi‐experimental evaluations of psychosocial, pharmacological, and/or legal interventions using either a placebo, no treatment, waitlist control, treatment‐as‐usual, or alternative treatment as a comparison condition. Study participants needed to be comprised of families with children under the age of 18 with one or more currently substance‐misusing parents (or caregivers). Studies were required to evaluate the eligible intervention using a child‐focused psychosocial outcome. If reported in eligible studies, the following secondary outcomes were also synthesised in the review: cost‐effectiveness, treatment completion, length of time in treatment and acceptability of treatment (e.g., participant perspectives of the intervention). There were no restrictions placed on publication status or geographic location, however only research written in English was included. Data Collection and Analysis Standard methodological procedures were followed across all stages of the review, as guided by the published protocol for the review (Eggins et al., 2020). Due to the inability to conduct network meta‐analyses, random effects pairwise meta‐analyses with inverse variance were used to synthesise effects when two or more studies with conceptually similar interventions and outcomes were available. Results of the meta‐analyses are displayed in forest plots, and separate analyses are provided for conceptually distinct outcomes and time‐points of measurement. Sensitivity analyses are used to explore possible sources of heterogeneity in the absence of sufficient studies to conduct subgroup analyses. Main Results 99 studies (reported in 231 documents) met review inclusion criteria, encompassing 22,213 participants. Most studies were conducted in the United States (k = 76), almost half were randomised controlled trials (k = 46), and the most common comparator was treatment‐as‐usual (k = 50). Interventions were evaluated using a large range of child psychosocial outcomes which broadly fell under: (a) child welfare; (b) child development; (c) child emotional and behavioural; and (d) educational domains. Intervention models were rarely only legal or pharmacological in nature, with most studies evaluating integrated psychosocial treatments with either pharmacology, coordinated health care, case‐management, and/or judicial or child welfare oversight and coordination. Thirty‐six meta‐analyses and 227 single effect sizes were used to appraise the effectiveness of included interventions, based on 68 studies with sufficient data for effect size calculation. The size and direction of the effects varied across interventions, type of outcomes, and time‐point of measurement. Twenty‐seven meta‐analyses and 186 single effect sizes suggested null effects. Only five single effect size estimates based on three studies indicated negative effects including: higher depressive and somatisation symptoms (parent‐report), hopelessness (child‐report), educational achievement difficulties (parent‐report), and substantiated child protection reports for those engaged with interventions versus treatment‐as‐usual or no treatment. Nine meta‐analyses and 36 single study effect estimates suggest that psychosocial, pharmacological and/or legal interventions have a positive effect on a range of specific child welfare, developmental, and emotional/behavioural outcomes for children. The risk of bias varied across domains and studies, which further lowers confidence in the results. Based on a subset of included studies, treatment completion tends to vary, yet cost‐benefits can be achieved when intervening with children whose parents misuse substances. Authors' Conclusions Despite a large body of evaluation evidence, disparate outcomes, and missing data precluded analyses to formally examine the comparative effectiveness of psychosocial, legal, and pharmacological interventions for improving outcomes for children with substance misusing parents. The large amount of unreported (missing) data meant that many effect estimates were underpowered due to single studies and small sample sizes. The review findings suggest that interventions for families affected by parental substance misuse can be effective when they holistically address multiple domains such as parent wellbeing/mental health, parenting, children's wellbeing, and/or other factors impacting family wellbeing (e.g., housing).

Background The consequences for children born with birth defects and developmental disabilities encompassed by foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) are profound, affecting all areas of social, behavioural and cognitive functioning. Given the strong evidence for a core deficit in executive functioning, underpinned by impaired self‐regulation skills, there has been a growing focus on the development of interventions that enhance or support the development of executive functions (EFs). Objectives The primary objective of this review is to synthesise the evidence for structured psychological interventions that explicitly aim to improve EF in children. The review also sought to ascertain if the effectiveness of interventions were influenced by characteristics of the intervention, participants or type of EF targeted by the intervention. Search Methods Sixteen databases, 18 grey literature search locations and 9 trial registries were systematically searched to locate eligible studies (up to December 2020). These searches were supplemented with reference harvesting, forward citation searching, hand searches of topic‐relevant journals and contact with experts. Selection Criteria Studies were included in the review if they reported on an impact evaluation of a psychological intervention aiming to improve EF in children 3–16 years who either had confirmed prenatal alcohol exposure or a formal diagnosis falling under the umbrella term of FASDs. Eligible study designs included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi‐experimental designs with either no treatment, wait list control or an alternative treatment as a comparison condition. Single‐group pre‐post designs were also included. Data Collection and Analysis Standard methodological procedures expected by the Campbell Collaboration were used at all stages of this review. Standardised mean differences (SMDs) were used to estimate intervention effects, which were combined with random effects meta‐analysis (data permitting). Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool (RoB2) and Cochrane Risk of Bias in Non‐Randomised Studies‐Interventions tool (ROBINS‐I). Main Results The systematic search identified 3820 unique records. After title/ and full‐text screening, 11 eligible studies (reported in 21 eligible documents) were deemed eligible, with a combined 253 participants. Of the 11 studies, 6 were RCTs, 1 was a quasi‐experiment and 4 were single‐group pre‐post intervention designs. All studies were rated as having an overall high or serious risk of bias, with some variation across domains for RCTs. For RCT and quasi‐experimental studies, the overall effect of EF interventions on direct and indirect measures of EF generally favoured the experimental condition, but was not statistically significant. There was no difference between intervention and comparison groups on direct measures of auditory attention (k = 3; SMD = 0.06, 95% confidence interval [CI] = −1.06, 1.18), visual attention (k = 2; SMD = 0.90, 95% CI = −1.41, 3.21), cognitive flexibility (k = 2; SMD = 0.23, 95% CI = −0.40, 0.86), attentional inhibition (k = 2; SMD = 0.04, 95% CI = −0.58, 0.65), response inhibition (k = 3; SMD = 0.47, 95% CI = −0.04, 0.99), or verbal working memory (k = 1; d = 0.6827; 95% CI = −0.0196, 1.385). Significant heterogeneity was found across studies on measures of auditory attention and visual attention, but not for measures of cognitive flexibility, attentional inhibition or response inhibition. Available data prohibited further exploration of heterogeneity. There was no statistical difference between intervention and comparison groups on indirect measures of global executive functioning (k = 2; SMD = 0.21, 95% CI = −0.40, 0.82), behavioural regulation (k = 2; SMD = 0.18, 95% CI = −0.43, 0.79), or emotional control (k = 3; SMD = 0.01, 95% CI = −0.33, 0.36). Effect sizes were positive and not significant for meta‐cognition (k = 1; SMD = 0.23, 95% CI = −0.72, 1.19), shifting (k = 2; SMD = 0.04, 95% CI = −0.35, 0.43), initiation (k = 1; SMD = 0.04, 95% CI = −0.40, 0.49), monitoring (k = 1; SMD = 0.25, 95% CI = −0.20, 0.70) and organisation of materials (k = 1; SMD = 0.25, 95% CI = −0.19, 0.70). Effect sizes were negative and not statistically different for effortful control (k = 1; SMD = −0.53, 95% CI = −1.50, 0.45), inhibition (k = 2; SMD = −0.08, 95% CI = −0.47, 0.31), working memory (k = 1; SMD = 0.00, 95% CI = −0.45, 0.44), and planning and organisation (k = 1; SMD = −0.10, 95% CI = −0.55, 0.34). No statistically significant heterogeneity was found for any of the syntheses of indirect measures of EF. Based on pre‐post single‐group designs, there was evidence for small to medium sized improvements in EF based on direct measures (cognitive flexibility, verbal working memory and visual working memory) and indirect measures (behavioural regulation, shifting, inhibition and meta‐cognition). However, these results must be interpreted with caution due to high risk of bias. Authors' Conclusions This review found limited and uncertain evidence for the effectiveness of interventions for improving executive functioning in children with FASD across 8 direct and 13 indirect measures of EF. The findings are limited by the small number of high‐quality studies that could be synthesised by meta‐analysis and the very small sample sizes for the included studies.