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This paper presents EuropeAgriDB v1.0, a dataset of crop production and nitrogen (N) flows in European cropland 1961–2019. The dataset covers 26 present-day countries, detailing the cropland N harvests in 17 crop categories as well as cropland N inputs in synthetic fertilizers, manure, symbiotic fixation, and atmospheric deposition. The study builds on established methods but goes beyond previous research by combining data from FAOSTAT, Eurostat, and a range of national data sources. The result is a detailed, complete, and consistent dataset, intended as a basis for further analyses of past and present agricultural production patterns, as well as construction of scenarios for the future. Measurement(s) agricultural process Technology Type(s) Survey Factor Type(s) year • geographic location Sample Characteristic - Environment agriculture Sample Characteristic - Location Europe Machine-accessible metadata file describing the reported data: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.14893077

This paper presents a method to estimate soil surface phosphorus (P) budgets for 243 subnational regions in EU28. This is about the maximum spatial resolution that can be achieved mainly using international datasets that are regularly updated. Similar subnational budgets could be established for nitrogen (N) with some additions to this method. Increasing the spatial resolution from national to subnational is one way to address the well-known issue that national nutrient budgets sometimes mask considerable heterogeneity, i.e., regional surpluses and deficits that are not seen in national averages. Our results indeed show how a rich structure of different P budgets emerges when moving from national to subnational level. Another approach is to exclude the most extensively managed areas from the budgets, to better represent the surplus in intensive agriculture areas. Here, we show that both approaches are useful and sometimes important as they can affect P surplus estimates by about 10 kg P ha − 1  y − 1 or more. The choice of spatial resolution is a trade-off between accuracy and precision. National budgets are the most accurate thanks to good data coverage, but they sometimes fail to identify considerable P surpluses and deficits at subnational level. Increasing the precision (spatial resolution) gradually reveals this heterogeneity but comes at the cost of growing data gaps, which we discuss in detail. These subnational P surpluses represent a middle ground which may prove useful as one indicator among others to monitor the development of environmental risks and resource problems over time.

Nutrient budgets help to identify the excess or insufficient use of fertilizers and other nutrient sources in agriculture. They allow for the calculation of indicators, such as the nutrient balance (surplus if positive or deficit if negative) and nutrient use efficiency, that help to monitor agricultural productivity and sustainability across the world. We present a global database of country-level budget estimates for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) on cropland. The database, disseminated in FAOSTAT, is meant to provide a global reference, synthesizing and continuously updating the state of the art on this topic. The database covers 205 countries and territories, as well as regional and global aggregates, for the period from 1961 to 2020. Results highlight the wide range in nutrient use and nutrient use efficiencies across geographic regions, nutrients, and time. The average N balance on global cropland has remained fairly steady at about 50–55 kg ha−1 yr−1 during the past 15 years, despite increasing N inputs. Regional trends, however, show recent average N surpluses that range from a low of about 10 kg N ha−1 yr−1 in Africa to more than 90 kg N ha−1 yr−1 in Asia. Encouragingly, average global cropland N use efficiency decreased from about 59 % in 1961 to a low of 43 % in 1988, but it has risen since then to a level of 55 %. Phosphorus deficits are mainly found in Africa, whereas potassium deficits occur in Africa and the Americas. This study introduces improvements over previous work in relation to the key nutrient coefficients affecting nutrient budgets and nutrient use efficiency estimates, especially with respect to nutrient removal in crop products, manure nutrient content, atmospheric deposition and crop biological N fixation rates. We conclude by discussing future research directions and highlighting the need to align statistical definitions across research groups as well as to further refine plant and livestock coefficients and expand estimates to all agricultural land, including nutrient flows in meadows and pastures. Further information is available from https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.hx3ffbgkh (Ludemann et al., 2023b) as well as the FAOSTAT database (https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/ESB; FAO, 2022a) and is updated annually.

This paper presents a spatially explicit method for making regional estimates of the potential for biogas production from crop residues and manure, accounting for key technical, biochemical, environmental and economic constraints. Methods for making such estimates are important as biofuels from agricultural residues are receiving increasing policy support from the EU and major biogas producers, such as Germany and Italy, in response to concerns over unintended negative environmental and social impacts of conventional biofuels. This analysis comprises a spatially explicit estimate of crop residue and manure production for the EU at 250 m resolution, and a biogas production model accounting for local constraints such as the sustainable removal of residues, transportation of substrates, and the substrates' biochemical suitability for anaerobic digestion. In our base scenario, the EU biogas production potential from crop residues and manure is about 0.7 EJ/year, nearly double the current EU production of biogas from agricultural substrates, most of which does not come from residues or manure. An extensive sensitivity analysis of the model shows that the potential could easily be 50% higher or lower, depending on the stringency of economic, technical and biochemical constraints. We find that the potential is particularly sensitive to constraints on the substrate mixtures' carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and dry matter concentration. Hence, the potential to produce biogas from crop residues and manure in the EU depends to large extent on the possibility to overcome the challenges associated with these substrates, either by complementing them with suitable co-substrates (e.g. household waste and energy crops), or through further development of biogas technology (e.g. pretreatment of substrates and recirculation of effluent).

Food systems are major drivers of environmental and health impacts. While the emissions and other pressures causing these impacts mainly occur in primary agricultural production, the deeper causes and much of the mitigation potential are distributed throughout food systems, including dietary choices and multiple inefficiencies in the whole chain from agricultural production to consumption and waste management. An environmental indicator based on this systems perspective is the nitrogen (N) footprint, defined as the emissions of reactive N due to the consumption of an individual or other entity. Here, we present a method to estimate the N footprint of Swedish food consumption, using a detailed inventory of agricultural production, food and feed processing, food waste, waste management, and wastewater treatment. Limitations of data sources and methods are discussed in detail. The estimated Swedish food N footprint is 12.1 kg N capita −1 yr −1 , of which 42% is emitted in Swedish production, 38% in production abroad, 1% in consumer waste management, and 19% in wastewater treatment. Animal food products account for 81% of the food N footprint and 70% of the protein intake. Average protein intake exceeds nutritional requirements by about 60%, which suggests that at least 35% reduction of food-related reactive N emissions could be achieved through dietary change. Of the apparent food N consumption (6.9 kg N capita −1 yr −1 ), about 22% is food waste N (1.5 kg N capita −1 yr −1 ). We estimate that 76% of food waste N is unavoidable (bones and other parts not commonly eaten). Avoidable food waste is about 7% of the edible food supply, implying that a hypothetical complete elimination of food waste would reduce emissions by about 7%. In summary, we present a detailed method, discuss its limitations, and demonstrate possible uses of the N footprint as a complement to existing territorial and sectoral environmental indicators.

European agri-food systems face the dual challenge of reducing their environmental footprint, particularly nitrogen losses, while meeting the demands for both food and non-food biomass. Because future responses will have to build on the legacy of past trajectories, addressing this challenge requires a sound, fine-grained understanding of those trajectories. In the present study, we address this challenge by compiling a dataset (1990–2019) quantifying nitrogen flows across the agri-food systems of 120 European territories. Using this dataset, we apply the generalized representation of agri-food systems framework to classify agri-food systems into six types representing different degrees of specialization. Our results show that agricultural systems became increasingly specialized, rising from 22% of specialized territories in 1990 to 36% in 2019, indicating a growing reliance on external feed and fertilizer inputs. Most of these transitions occurred in eastern Europe, predominantly toward stockless cropping systems. Although these evolutions unfolded within broader processes of market liberalization, transition patterns also displayed clear path-dependency effects rooted in the material configuration of agri-food systems. This is evidenced by the analysis of transition frequencies, which shows that some transitions occurred repeatedly while others never occurred, pointing to the influence of initial system configurations on subsequent trajectories. By contrast, changes in agro-environmental performance were only weakly linked to system transitions. The increases in nitrogen use efficiency (from 0.57 to 0.70) and declines in nitrogen surplus (from 68 to 49 kg N ha −1 ) rather coincided with higher yields and increased nitrogen input application rates, pointing to the dominant role of factors not explicitly captured here, such as shifts in agronomic practices and pedo-climatic conditions. Taken together, these findings provide both a critical dataset and a robust understanding of recent territorial agri-food trajectories, thereby offering a solid empirical basis for anticipating future transitions and developing scenario-based analyses.

Ensuring food production with low nitrogen (N) environmental emissions requires good quantitative knowledge of N flows in agricultural systems to monitor emissions and N use efficiency (NUE, the ratio of N outputs to inputs). Our study quantifies the main N agricultural flows at subnational and national scales in Denmark and Sweden from 2011 to 2020, calculating the NUE for crop and livestock production and associated nitrous oxide (N2O) and ammonia (NH3) emissions. In Denmark, our results indicate a similar use of organic (manure) and synthetic N fertilizers (230 and 213 kt N y−1, 83 and 77 kg N ha−1 y−1); in contrast, Sweden used more synthetic (162 kt N y−1, 54 kg N ha−1 y−1) than organic N (108 kt N y−1, 36 kg N ha−1 y−1), with subnational variation in manure use as determined by livestock population. Livestock feed N intake was twice as large in Denmark (384 kt N y−1) as in Sweden (176 kt N y−1), reflecting Denmark’s larger livestock population. Denmark’s national crop NUE was lower (0.51) than Sweden’s (0.72), likely due to a lower proportion of grass–clover leys, higher N input rates, and more intensive production systems. However, considerable subnational variation existed in both countries. The livestock NUE was 0.29 in Denmark and 0.25 in Sweden; these differences are mainly due to a higher proportion of ruminants in Sweden with lower N feed use efficiency than pigs. Sweden emitted less N2O and NH3 per unit area (∼56% for both gases) and in total (∼52% for both gases) than Denmark due to lower use of N inputs and less intensive farming systems. West Denmark and South Sweden were identified as emission hotspots. Our research provides essential information at subnational and national scales to improve N management and reduce gaseous N pollution, supporting the transition towards more sustainable agroecosystems in Denmark and Sweden.

Overuse of N fertilizers in crops has induced the disruption of the N cycle, triggering the release of reactive N (Nr) to the environment. Several EU policies have been developed to address this challenge, establishing targets to reduce agricultural Nr losses. Their achievement could be materialized through the introduction of fertilizing innovations such as incorporating fertilizer into soils, using urease inhibitors, or by adjusting N inputs to crop needs that could impact in both yields and environment. The Murcia region (southeastern Spain) was selected as a paradigmatic case study, since overfertilization has induced severe environmental problems in the region in the last decade, to assess the impact of a set of 8 N fertilizing alternatives on crop yields and environmental Nr losses. Some of these practices imply the reduction of N entering in crops. We followed an integrated approach analyzing the evolution of the region in the long-term (1860–2018) and considering nested spatial- (from grid to region) and systems scales (from crops to the full agro-food system). We hypothesized that, even despite reduction of N inputs, suitable solutions for the abatement of Nr can be identified without compromising crop yields. The most effective option to reduce Nr losses was removing synthetic N fertilizers, leading to 75% reductions in N surpluses mainly due to a reduction of 64% of N inputs, but with associated yield penalties (31%–35%). The most feasible alternative was the removal of urea, resulting in 19% reductions of N inputs, 15%–21% declines in N surplus, and negligible yield losses. While these measures are applied at the field scale, their potential to produce a valuable change can only be assessed at regional scale. Because of this, a spatial analysis was performed showing that largest Nr losses occurred in irrigated horticultural crops. The policy implications of the results are discussed.

Aligning national food systems with global goals is required for sustainable transitions. We examine if realistic, context-specific dietary changes, mindful of Swedish food culture and in line with future scenarios, are sufficient to meet ambitious environmental goals. Here, we quantified diets based on the four Swedish Food Futures scenarios, which reflect prospects of technological development, behavioral change, import trends, and values. Scenario diet nutritional intakes and environmental impacts were quantified and related to health targets and nationally adapted climate, cropland, and biodiversity boundaries. Dietary changes in scenario diets reduced environmental impacts by 30% compared to current diets. No scenario stayed within the strictest climate boundary without removal of energy-related food chain emissions—resulting in 50–60% additional impact reduction. Food chain waste reduction by 50% resulted in an additional 8–10% reduction in impacts. Dietary changes can make substantial contributions to staying within global climate, cropland, and biodiversity boundaries and meet health targets, but improvements in production and waste reductions are also required. In Sweden, dietary changes simulated under four food futures pathways reduced environmental impacts by 30 percent, but waste and fossil fuel emissions reductions are necessary to meet the climate target, according to an analysis that combines food items, nutrients, health, and environmental data.

OpenToolFlux 1.0 is an open-source software designed to estimate soil gas fluxes from gas concentration time-series data generated by automatic chamber systems. This paper describes the physical equipment used as well as the software design and workflow. The software is a command-line application that imports tabular time-series data from the analyzer following the instructions specified in a configuration file by the user, performs configurable data-cleaning operations, and outputs a data file with volumetric flux estimates as well as diagnostic plots. The software can be configured according to the specifics of the physical equipment and experimental setups, and it is, therefore, applicable to a wide range of studies.